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DELHI SULTANATE

Overview

The Delhi Sultanate was a period from the 13^th to the 16^th centuries when several Turkic and Afghan dynasties ruled northern India from Delhi
The dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate were
- Mamluk dynasty (1206-1290)
- Khilji dynasty (1290-1320)
- Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413)
- Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)
- Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)
The Delhi Sultanate was established upon the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 CE and was absorbed by the newly emerging Mughal Empire in 1526 CE

Mamluk Dynasty

Also known as the Slave Dynasty, the Mamluk dynasty was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1206-1290 CE
The Mamluks were essentially a Turkic people
It was established by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak, a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori, who took over Ghori’s Indian territories following the latter’s death in 1206 CE
Important rulers of the Mamluk dynasty include
- Qutub-ud-din-Aybak (1206-1210 CE)
- Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish (1211-1236)
- Razia Sultana (1236-1240)
- Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban (1266-1287)
The Qutub Minar (New Delhi) was commissioned by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak in 1193 CE. At 72.5 m, it is the world’s tallest brick minaret and is one of the earliest and most prominent examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. It is part of the Qutub Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Balban’s tomb is located in Mehrauli, New Delhi
The Sultan Ghari, also in New Delhi, is the oldest Islamic mausoleum in India. It was built by Iltutmish for his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud in 1231 CE
Razia Sultana was the first female ruler of a Muslim kingdom anywhere in the world

Khilji Dynasty

The Khiljis were the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. They ruled north and northwestern India 1290-1320 CE
They were Turko-Afghan people
The greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din-Khilji (1296-1316 CE)
Khilji attacked Chittor in 1303 after hearing of the beauty of queen Padmini, wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. This event is the setting of the epic poem Padmavat written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi (in 1540 CE), in the Awadhi language
Khilji’s plunder of Gujarat in 1297 CE is noted for the loot of the Somnath temple and the destruction of the Sivalingam into pieces.
Ala-ud-din-Khilji is noted for the first Muslim invasions of southern India. Khilji’s general, Malik Kafur, conquered Devagiri and Warangal, caused the collapse of the Hoysalas, and went as far south as Madurai, which was occupied for a brief period of time
Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s most important achievement was repelling repeated Mongol invasions of India between 1294 CE and 1308 CE, which would inevitably have brought destruction and devastation on a colossal scale

Tughlaq Dynasty

The Tughlaq dynasty ruled from 1321 to 1394 CE
They were of Turkic origin
The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas al-din Tughlaq in 1321 CE
The most important ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty was Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE)
Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a renown scholar, was tolerant towards other religions and an innovative administrator. However, his experiments in reforming public administration often failed, earning him much satire
He was responsible for the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate southwards into the Deccan region
In order to strengthen his hold on newly conquered territories in peninsular India, Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital of the Sultanate from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra (which was renamed Daulatabad). Due to poor planning and facilities, the capital had to be moved back to Delhi two years later.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq also introduced copper-based token currency, the first such experiment in India. Although the copper currency was backed by gold and silver in government reserves, the switch was not embraced by the public and the experiment had to be abandoned
Muhammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE). Firoz Shah Tughlaq re-built the top two storeys of the Qutub Minar with white marble, when the earlier structure was partially destroyed by lightning

Sayyid Dynasty

The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 CE to 1451 CE
The Sayyid’s came to power following a power vacuum induced by Timur’s invasion and devastation of Delhi in 1398 CE

Lodi Dynasty

The Lodi dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 CE to 1526
They were of Afghan origin
The Lodi dynasty was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi in 1451 CE
Sikandar Lodi (1489 CE-1517) founded the city of Agra in 1504. He attacked Gwalior five times but was repulsed each time by Maharaja Mansingh of Gwalior
The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty was Ibrahim Lodi (1489 CE-1526).
Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Afghan Mughal Babur in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. With this, the Delhi Sultanate was dissolved and the Mughal Empire was established

Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate

Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was insulating the Indian subcontinent from the devastation of Mongol invasions in the 13^th century
However, the Delhi Sultanate failed to prevent the sacking of Delhi by Timur (aka Tamerlane). Timur sacked and pillaged Delhi in 1398 CE, leading to widespread devastation and destruction
The Delhi Sultanate established a network of market centres through which traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated
Agricultural practices of shifting to cash crops (like sugarcane) instead of food crops were encouraged

DECCAN SULTANATES

Overview

The Deccan Sultanates were five Muslim ruled kingdoms located in the Deccan plateau
They ruled south central India from 1527 to 1686
The Deccan Sultanates were established following the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1527
The five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanates were
- Ahmadnagar (1490-1636)
- Bijapur (1490-1686)
- Berar (1490-1572)
- Golkonda (1518-1687)
- Bidar (1528-1619)
The Deccan Sultanates were generally rivals but united against the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of Tallikota in 1565
An important cultural contribution of the Deccan Sultanates was the development of Dakhani Urdu – drawn from Arabic, Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu
The period is also famous for the development of Deccani miniature paintings, which flourished in Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda

Ahmadnagar Sultanate

The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was located in northwestern Deccan, between the Gujarat and Bijapur sultanate
The Sultanate was established by Malik Ahmad in 1490, who founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty
The capital city of the Sultanate was initially Junnar, which was later shifted to Ahmadnagar
The earliest examples of miniature paintings are found in the manuscript Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi (c. 1565)
This period is also known for the encyclopaedia Nrisimha Prasada written by Dalapati
The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb (during the reign of Shah Jahan) in 1636

Berar Sultanate

The Berar Sultanate was established by Imad-ul Mulk in 1490
It was annexed by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in 1572

Bidar Sultanate

The Bidar Sultanate was established by Qasim Barid in 1490
Bidar was sandwiched between the Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda sultanates
Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1619
An important type of metalwork called Bidri originated in Bidar. These metalworks were carried out on black metal (mainly zinc) with inlaid designs of silver, brass and copper

Bijapur Sultanate

The Bijapur Sultanate was established by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490, who founded the Adil Shahi dynasty
The Bijapur Sultanate was located in northern Karnataka, with its capital at Bijapur
Under the Adil Shahi dynasty, Bijapur became an important centre of commerce and culture in India
The Begum Talab was a 234 acre tank constructed by Mohammad Adil Shah in 1651 in memory of Jahan Begum. Underground pipes, encased in masonry supplied water from the tank to the city residents
Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote a book of songs in Dakhani urdu called Kitab-i-Navras. This work contains a number of songs set to different ragas
The Bijapur Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686

Golconda Sultanate

The Golconda Sultanate was established in 1518 by Qutb-ul-Mulk, who founded the Qutb Shahi dynasty
The Golconda Sultanate was located in northern Andhra Pradesh
The capital city was Hyderabad
The Qutb Shahi dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Jami Masjid (1518), Charminar (1591) and Mecca Masjid (1617)
Another famous structure from the period is the fort of Golconda
The Shahi dynasty was instrumental in the development of Dakhani urdu
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote the Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in Dakhani urdu
Golconda was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687

LAST WEEK: MUSLIM INVASIONS~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

Indian History #14 | Study Material::General Studies | IAS Help

EARLY MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN INDIA

Overview

Muslim conquests in India started in the 12^th century. However, periodical raids into India started as early as the 7^th century
The earliest Muslim foray into India occurred in 664 CE by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, the governor of Khorasan (Iran) under the Ummayad Caliphate
Invasions into India were carried out from the northwest over a period of centuries by Arabs, Turkic, Mongol and Turco-Mongol peoples

Impact of Muslim conquests

The presence of Islamic governments from Spain/Morocco to Indonesia facilitated trade and enabled the establishment of a common legal system
Ceramic tiles were introduced into India based on architectural designs in Persia and Central Asia
Blue pottery (famous in Rajasthan) was cultivated by Muslim rulers who imported it in large quantities from China
Numerous Indian scientific and mathematical advancements, including the numeral system, spread to the rest of the world
Islamic languages were modified on contact with local languages to produce Urdu, which uses Persian words in the Arabic script

Conquest during the Rashudin Caliphate

The Rashudin Caliphate was founded immediately after Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. At its height, the Rashudin Caliphate extended from North Africa to Persia, and parts of Afghanistan/Baluchistan
During Rashudin Caliphate, significant conquests were made northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, especially areas like Makran and Sindh (in Pakistan)
These early conquests were primarily an extension of campaigns to conquer and annex the Sassanid Persian empire in the mid seventh century
Islamic forces first entered Sindh in 644 CE during the reign of Caliph Umar, and established the eastern frontier of the Caliphate as the Makran region in Baluchistan

Conquest during the Ummayad Caliphate

The Umayyad Caliphate was the second and largest of the four major Caliphates established following Muhammad’s death. It was established in 660 CE. At its height, it extended from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain/Portugal) to northwestern India
In 712 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate sent an expedition under Muhammad bin Qasim, who defeated Raja Dahir of Sindh. He then annexed territory from Karachi to Multan.
This was the first significant Islamic expansion into traditionally Indian territories
The main objective of the expedition was the Sun Mandir at Multan, known as the ‘City of Gold’ due to its wealth
Qasim was immediately recalled to Baghdad by the Caliph, and the newly acquired territories were then administered by weak governors who only nominally acknowledged Arab authority
Qasim’s successor, Junaid, was then defeated by a conglomeration of Hindu Rajput clans, including the Pratiharas, in the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE). Following this defeat, Islamic expansion into India was stopped at the Indus for the next three centuries
Multan became a centre of the Islmaili sect of Islam
The northern regions comprising the Punjab remained under the control of Hindu kings, while the southern regions comprising Baluchistan, Sindh and Multan passed into Muslim control

Mahmud of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni was the most prominent ruler of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty
He ruled from 997 CE to 1030 CE
The capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty was Ghazni in Afghanistan
At its height, the Ghaznavid territories included most of Iran and Pakistan and parts of northwestern India
Mahmud Ghazni was the first ruler to carry the title Sultan
Ghazni’s first expansion into India was his conquest of the Hindu Shahi dynasty which ruled Lahore and parts of Kashmir. Ghazni defeated and conquered Raja Anandapala of the Shahi dynasty in 1008 CE
Over the next decade, Ghazni conquered the kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Gwalior and Ujjain

Muhammad of Ghor

Muhammad of Ghor (also known as Muhammad Ghori) was the sultan of the Ghorid dynasty centred in Afghanistan. Ghori ruled from 1202 to 1206 CE
His capital was the city of Ghor in Afghanistan
Muhammad Ghori defeated and dissolved the Ghaznavid dynasty in 1186 CE, thereby establishing the Ghorid dynasty
He initially ruled as governor under his brother Ghiyas ud-Din Muhammad, and later became king following the latter’s death in 1202
Ghori extended Islamic rule in India much further east than the earlier Ghaznavid kingdom
Muhammad Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer at the First Battle of Tarain (Haryana) in 1191 CE
The next year, Ghori once again attacked and this time defeated Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE
Following this, Ghori captured the Rajput kingdoms of Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi. Ghori also captured Ajmer and Delhi, thereby ending Hindu rule in Delhi, with Prithviraj Chauhan becoming the last Hindu ruler of Delhi
Since he had no heirs, Ghori’s kingdom passed into the hands of his Turkic slaves upon his death in 1206 CE. One of his slaves, Qutbuddin Aybak, took control of Ghori’s Indian territories and founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

LAST WEEK: CHALUKYAS, HOYSALAS, PANDYAS ~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: DELHI AND DECCAN SULTANATES

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THE (LATER) CHALUKYAS

Overview

This article deals with the later Chalukyas, who ruled south central India including Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra in the 10^th-12^th centuries CE
For the earlier Chalukyas who ruled in the 6^th century from Badami, see this earlier article
The later Chalukyas were divided into two contemporaneous kingdoms:
- Western Chalukyas who ruled from Kalyani (Karnataka)
- Eastern Chalukyas who ruled from Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
Both the Western Chalukyas and Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami. In a sense they were cousins, but they were in conflict with each other
The Eastern Chalukyas were allied with the Cholas, and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was absorbed into the Chola Empire in the 12^th century. On the other hand, the Western Chalukyas were bitterly opposed to the Cholas, and the two were in constant conflict for over two centuries

WESTERN CHALUKYAS

The Western Chalukyas ruled most of the western Deccan between the 10^th and 12^th centuries
The Western Chalukyas came into prominence under Tailapa II after overthrowing the Rashtrakutas in 973 CE.
The capital of the Western Chalukyas was Kalyani (Karnataka). Their territories included most of Karnataka, almost all of Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh
The most important ruler of the Western Chalukyas was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE)
The Western Chalukyas were in constant conflict with the Cholas over control of the fertile region of Vengi in Andhra Pradesh
A series of defeats by the more powerful Cholas gradually weakened the kingdom, with its territory shrinking significantly in the mid 11^th century (c. 1050 CE)
The continuous wars with the Cholas eventually exhausted the Western Chalukyas, and the dynasty was overthrown by feudatories including the Hoysalas in 1190 CE

Society under the Western Chalukyas

The Western Chalukyas followed the administrative and social set up of the preceding Rashtrakuta kingdom to a large extent
They minted punch marked gold coins, called Pagodas, with Kannada and Nagari legends
Merchants organised themselves into large guilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars. Powerful guilds included the
- Manigramam (Cochin)
- Nagarattar (Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu)
- Anjuvannam (Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu)
- Ainnurruvar (Aihole, Karnataka) – this was the most powerful guild
These trade guilds fiercely protected their trade interests and recorded their achievements in inscriptions known as Prasasti
Trade ties flourished with Magadha, Nepal, Cambodia, Persia, China and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
Important trade items included precious stones like diamond, emeralds, topaz etc and spices such as cardamom, saffron and cloves
With the rise of the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas, patronage for Jainism declined. Buddhism had already been in decline in South India since the 8^th century following the preachings of the Adi Shankara
Jainism gradually declined and only flourished in two regions: Shravanabelagola and Kadambahalli, both in Karnataka
The only places of Buddhist worship that remained were Dambal and Balligavi, both in Karnataka

Literature under the Western Chalukyas

The Western Chalukyas patronised Kannada and Sanskrit literature
Ranna (c. 980 CE) wrote in Kannada the Saahasabheema Vijayam which narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana, and the Ajitha Purana which describes the life of the second Jain tirthankara Ajithanatha
A unique and native form of Kannada literature called Vachanas developed at this time. They were written by mystics who expressed their devotion to God in simple language to be understood by the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu are famous among them
The Kashmiri poet Bilhana wrote the Vikramankadeva Charita in Sanskrit, which recounts the life of Vikaramaditya VI
The Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara wrote the Mitakshara, a treatise on law. The composition, which was based on earlier writings, was later translated into English by the British and given currency in the Indian court system

The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi (Karnataka) was built in 1112 CE by Mahadeva, a general in the army of the Western Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya VI

The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was mainly in the Karnata Dravida style, drawing from the Dravida style
The Western Chalukya architecture formed a link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 7^th century and the Hoysala architecture of the 12^th century
The vimana of their temples is a compromise between the plain style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative details of the Hoysalas
The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was concentrated around the Tungabhadra region of central Karnataka
Notable temples include Mahadevi Temple at Itagi, Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and Kallesvara Temple at Bagali

EASTERN CHALUKYAS

The Eastern Chalukyas ruled parts of Andhra Pradesh from the 7^th to the 12^th centuries CE
The capital city was Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
The Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), but outlived them by many generations
The Eastern Chalukyas developed as an independent kingdom following the death of Pulakesin II in 642 CE
Much weaker than their distant cousins and rivals the Western Chalukyas, the Eastern Chalukyas formed a close marital alliance with the Cholas
The fertile Vengi region of the Eastern Chalukyas was the principal cause of continuous conflict between the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas
Following generations of intermarriage, the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was merged into the Chola Empire in 1130 CE
The Eastern Chalukyas were instrumental in the development of Telugu literature
Nannaya Bhatta’s Mahabharata is the oldest available literary work in Telugu (mid 11^th century)

THE HOYSALAS

Overview

The Hoysalas ruled Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu between the 11^th and 14^th centuries
The capital city of the Hoysalas was Belur, but later moved to Haleibidu
The Hoysalas are noted especially for their magnificent temple architecture
Hoysalas were also instrumental in encouraging Kannada literature
The Hoysalas rose to prominence under Vishnuvardhana (c. 1120 CE), however were still subordinate to the Western Chalukyas at the time
Overthrowing the Western Chalukyas, the Hoysalas became an independent kingdom under Veera Ballala II (c. 1187-1193 CE)
Among contemporary South Indian kingdoms, the Hoysalas were the last to fall to Muslim invasions from the north. They resisted invasions by Alla-ud-din-Khilji’s general Malik Kafur until 1343, and the kingdom was then absorbed into the newly forming Vijayanagara Empire

The Somathapura Temple at Somanathapura (Karnataka) was built in 1268 CE by the Hoysala ruler Narasimha III

Economy, society and administration

The Hoysala economy, society and administration pretty much followed that of its predecessors
Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers for foreign affairs were called Sandhivigrahi, chief treasurer Mahabhandari. Chief of army was Dandanayaka and Chief Justice was Dharmidhakari
Administrative divisions included Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha in descending order of their size.
An elite and well trained force of personal bodyguards called Garudas protected the royal family at all times. Their loyalty was so complete that they committed suicide upon the master’s death. Hero stones erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars
The Hoysala rulers were mainly Vaishnavites. Hoysala period is known for the preachings of Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhavacharya, well known Vaishnava saints

Literature

Although Sanskrit remained popular, Kannada literature was particularly favoured by the Hoysalas
In 1209, Jaina scholar Janna wrote Yashodhacharite, a story of a king who intends to sacrifice two young boys to a local deity
Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin, wrote Jagannatha Viajaya, relating the life of Lord Krishna up to his battle with demon Banasura
Harihara, a Vaishnava, wrote Girijakalyana which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva to Parvati
In Sanskrit, Madhavacharya wrote the Rigbhasya on Brahmasutras, a logical explanation of the Vedas

Architecture

The Hoysalas are best known for their architecture, especially in building temples
The Hoysala architectural style, called Karnata Dravida, was an offshoot of the Chalukya style, which borrowed from the Dravida style
A prominent feature of Hoysala architecture is attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. This high level of detail was achieved using soapstone for construction
Important temples include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura

Temple	Location	Built by	Notes
Chennakesava Temple	Belur (Karnataka)	Vishnuvardhana (c. 1117 CE)	Deity is Vishnu Unusually large compared to other Hoysala temples
Hoysaleswara Temple	Halebidu (Karnataka)	Vishnuvardhana	Deity is Shiva Famous for extremely articulate and detailed sculptures Contains a Garuda pillar in honour of Kuruva Lakshma, bodyguard of Veera Ballala II
Kesava Temple	Somanathapura (Karnataka)	Narasimha III (c. 1268 CE)	Deity is Vishnu

THE (LATER) PANDYAS

The Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, are considered to be among the oldest Indian dynasties
The Pandyas are mentioned as the hosts of the third Tamil Sangam (3^rd century BC-3^rd century CE), and as hosts of the supposedly even earlier first two Sangams
However, this article only deals with the later Pandyas, who rose to prominence in the 13^th century, and about whom concrete literary, archaeological and epigraphical evidence is available
Throughout their existence, the capital city of the Pandyas was Madurai
After several centuries of submission under the Cholas, the Pandyas rose to prominence under the Maravarman Sundara Pandyan in the 13^th century (1216-1238 CE). In 1217 CE, Maravarman Pandyan defeated the Chola monarch Rajaraja III, thereby ending centuries of Chola suzerainty in southern India
At its peak, the Pandyan kingdom extended from the Godavari in the north to northern Sri Lanka in the south
The Pandyan kingdom reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1250-1268 CE) who dissolved the Chola Empire, which had already been in decline
Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan was given the title of Pon Veindha Perumal
for gold plating the roofs of the Chidambaram Temple and the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam. He also built a gate at the Srirangam Temple engraving the names of all four dynasties of Tamil Nadu i.e. Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, recognising the contribution of each
The Pandyan kingdom was disestablished in 1311 following defeat by Malik Kafur, the general of Alla-ud-din-Khilji, who was on an expedition to subjugate South India.
The city of Madurai passed to the Madurai Sultanate, established in 1335 CE by Sayyid Jalal-ud-din Ahsan. However, the Sultanate itself was dissolved by the rising Vijayanagara Empire in 1375 CE
Following this, Madurai was ruled by Nayaks, governors of the Vijayanagara Empire. Following the collapse of Vijayanagar in 1646 CE, the Nayaks ruled Madurai independently until the arrival of the British in 1736 CE

LAST WEEK: CHOLAS
~~~~~
NEXT WEEK: MUSLIM INVASIONS

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THE (LATER) CHOLAS

Overview

The Cholas, along with the Cheras and Pandyas, are considered to be among the oldest and longest dynasties in Indian history. They ruled southern India in the later parts of the first millennium BC (Sangam period), and supposedly in even earlier pre-historical epochs as mentioned in ancient Tamil literature
However, this article deals only with the later Cholas, about whom concrete literary, epigraphical and archaeological evidence has been established. In this article Cholas refers to later Cholas
The Cholas ruled large parts of Southern India including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Karnataka from the 9^th to 13^th centuries CE
The lasting legacies of the Cholas include some of the most important works of Tamil literature and magnificent temples and monuments
The Cholas are also known for their powerful navy with blue-water capabilities, that allowed them to project power as far away as Indonesia
The capital of the Cholas were Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram

The Chola Empire at its peak under Rajendra Chola (c. 1030 CE)

The heartland of the Chola territory was the fertile Kaveri valley centred around Tanjore
The Cholas came into prominence in the 9^th century under Vijayalaya Chola (c. 850 CE)
Important Chola kings include Parantaka Chola (c. 925 CE), Sundara Chola (c. 950 CE), Rajaraja Chola (c. 985-1014 CE), Rajendra Chola (c. 1012-1044 CE) and Kulothunga Chola (1070-1120 CE)
The Chola empire stretched from Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna basin in the north.
Additionally, large parts of north eastern India and South East Asia were conquered by Rajendra Chola, and were under Chola suzerainty. These included the Ganga-Hoogly-Damodar basin, Indo-China (Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam), Burma, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Rajendra Chola, the most successful Chola emperor, took on titles such as Gangaikonda Cholan and Mudikonda Cholan
To commemorate his successful campaigns to the Ganges, Rajendra Chola founded the city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, which served as the capital for over 200 years until the dissolution of the Chola empire in the 13^th century
Following generations of inter-marriage between the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas (of Vengi), the Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya ascended the Chola throne under the name Kulothunga Chola (1070 CE). The line of Chola rulers following Kulothunga Chola are also known as Chalukya-Cholas

The Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore, built by Rajaraja Chola, is the largest and tallest temple in India. The main Vimana towers over 16 storeys high, and is topped by a single granite stone weighing over 81 tonnes

The Chola Empire was the first to bring all of south India under a common government
The capital of the Cholas was Tanjore, and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram
The Cholas pioneered a system of highly organised governance where a careful balance was achieved between central control and local independence in administrative matters
Every village in the empire was a self-governing unit
Several villages made up a Korram, several Korrams made up a Valanadu, and several Valanadus made up a Mandalam (i.e. province)
The Cholas also pioneered the concept of immediately recording oral orders given by king in written form. A special official, Tirumandira Olai Nayagan, was tasked specifically with recording these oral orders in palm leaf manuscripts
The Chola empire had extensive trade relations with Sri Vijaya (Indonesia), China (Tang Dynasty) and the Abassid Caliphate (Baghdad)
The Cholas maintained a powerful and well-organised Navy, that it used for power projection, piracy control and trade convoy escorting

Art and Architecture under the Cholas

The period of the Cholas was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of Dravidian art and architecture
The most famous aspects of Chola art and architecture includes their exquisite bronze sculptures and massive stone temples
The Brihadeeswarar Temple at Tanjore, built by Rajaraja Chola (c. 1002 CE), is considered to be the pinnacle of Chola architecture. The temple, the largest and tallest in India, is also the first complete granite structure in the world
The UNESCO World Heritage Site Great Living Chola Temples consists of three temples constructed by the Cholas:
- Brihadeeswarar Temple (Tanjore)
- Airavateswarar Temple (Darasuram)
- Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (Gangaikonda Cholapuram)
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes, many of which are housed in museums around the world. Among the most famous Chola bronzes is that of Nataraja, depicting Siva in the cosmic dance of creation and destruction

The Great Living Chola Temples

The Great Living Chola Temples are a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Temple	Location	Date/Built by	Notes
Brihadeeswarar Temple	Tanjore (Tamil Nadu)	c. 1006 CE/Rajaraja Chola	Largest and tallest temple in India Served as the royal temple of the Cholas being the site of important royal ceremonies Also known as Peruvudaiyar Temple
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple	Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil Nadu)	c. 1025 CE/Rajendra Chola
Airavateswarar Temple	Darasuram (Tamil Nadu)	12^th century CE/Rajaraja Chola II

Literature under the Cholas

The Chola period is noted for the flourishing Tamil literature during this period
The Airavateswar Temple at Darasuram was built by Rajaraja Chola II. The temple, whose sanctum is in the form of a chariot, is known for the exquisite details of sculptures
Important epigraphical inscriptions have been found in the various temples constructed during this period
The most famous works of literature include
- Ramavataram by the poet Kamban, which describes the story of the Ramayana
- Kalingattubarani by Ottakuttan, which describes the conquest of Kalinga (Orissa) by Kulothunga Chola

LAST WEEK: RASHTRAKUTAS, PRATIHARAS, PALAS
~~~~~
NEXT WEEK: CHALUKYAS, HOYSALAS, PANDYAS

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THE RASHTRAKUTAS

Overview

The Rashtrakutas ruled large parts of southern and central India from the 6^th to the 10^th centuries CE
The Rashtrakutas emerged as a power after overthrowing the Chalukya Kiritivarman II in c. 753 CE
The Rashtrakutas were based around the Gulbarga region of modern Karnataka
The capital city of the Rashtrakutas was Manykheta (Karnataka)
The Rashtrakutas were in continuous conflict with the Palas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries

Extent and lineage

The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I

The Rashtrakuta dynasty was established by Dantidurga who overthrew the Chalukyas in 753 CE
At the height of their power, the Rashtrakutas kingdom included all of Karnataka and Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh
The most important kings of the Rashtrakutas were Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 CE), Govinda III (793-814 CE) and Amogavarsha (800-878 CE)

Administration, economy and society

The Rashtrakutas issued coins in silver and gold
The various currency denominations were Suvarnas (silver) and Drammas (gold) weighing 65 grains, Kalanju (48 grains), Gadyanaka (96 grains), Kasu (15 grains), Manjati (2.5 grains) and Akkam (1.25 grains)

Literature

Kannada literature attained prominence and importance during the reign of the Rashtrakutas
Kavirajamarga by king Amogavarsha is the earliest available literary work in Kannada. Amoghavarsha also wrote the Prashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit
Adipurana, a life history of the first Jain Tirthankara Rishabadeva in Kannada, was written by Pampa (c. 950 CE). Pampa also wrote the Vikaramarjuna Vijaya, based on the Mahabharata story. Pampa is recognised as one of the most famous Kannada writers
Another Jain writer, Sri Ponna, wrote the history of the 16^th Jain Tirthankara Shantinatha, entitled Shantipurana. His other writings in Kannada included Bhuvanaika-Karamabhyudaya, Jinaksaramale and Gataprataigata
Trikrama (c. 915 CE) wrote the Nalachampu, Damayanthi Katha and Madalaschampu in Kannada

Art and Architecture

The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora (Maharashtra) was constructed by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (c. 8^th century CE). The Kailasanatha Temple was carved out of a single rock, and is known for its vertical excavation i.e. it was carved starting from the top and proceeding downwards. The Kailasantha Temple is considered to be the pinnacle of Rashtrakuta architecture
The Rashtrakutas also built some of the sculptures at the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai
Other famous Rashtrakuta architecture include the Kasiviswanatha Temple and Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka and the Navalinga Temple at Kuknur, Karnataka
The architectural style used by the Rashtrakutas was primarily Dravidian

THE PALAS

Overview

The Palas ruled Bengal and much of northern India from the 8^th to the 12^th centuries CE
The capital cities of the Palas were Pataliputra (Bihar) and Gaur (West Bengal)
The Palas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries
The Palas patronized the Buddhist universities at Vikramashila and Nalanda. The Nalanda University reached its height during the reign of the Palas
Dharmapala constructed the Somapura Mahavira, the biggest Buddhist Vihara in Indian subcontinent. The Somapura Mahavira, located at Paharpur (Bangladesh) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1985)

Extent and lineage

The Somapura Mahavihara, built by the Pala emperor Dharmapala, is the largest Buddhist vihara in the Indian subcontinent. It is located in Paharpur, Bangladesh

The Pala dynasty was established by Gopala (750-770 CE) who came to power in a democratic election. This event is said to be the first democratic elections in India since the time of the Mahajanapadas
The Pala kingdom reached its peak under Dharmapala (770-810) and Devapala (810-850)
At its height, the Pala kingdom extended from Assam in the east to Kandahar in the west, and Punjab in the north to the Deccan in the south

Literature

The earliest development of proto-Bangla language was during the Pala reign
The Buddhist texts Charyapada were the earliest form of Bangla language. The Charyapada are a collection of mystical poems from the Tantric school of Buddhism
The Buddhist teacher Atisha Dipankara Shrijana wrote over 200 books, primarily translations of Sanskrit Buddhist manuscripts into Tibetan
Sandhyakar Nandi wrote the famous epic poem Ramacharitam in Sanskrit (c. late 11^th century). The Ramacharitam simultaneously narrates the story of the Ramayana as well as events in Bengal during the Pala reign in a poem containing 215 verses

PRATIHARAS

Overview

The Pratiharas ruled much of northern India from the 6^th to the 11^th centuries CE
Also known as Gurjara Pratiharas, they are associated with the Gujjar tribe and are considered to be Rajputs clans
The capital city of the Pratiharas were Kannauj and Avanti.
The Pratiharas used Sanskrit, Marwari and Malwi as official languages
The Pratiharas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Palas for more than two centuries
The Pratiharas are credited with repulsing Arab invasions in western India in the 7^th and 8^th centuries CE
The Pratiharas weakened over a period of time, due to having to fight the Palas and Rashtrakutas as well as Arab armies from the west

Extent and lineage

The Pratihara dynasty is said to have been founded by Harichandra in the 6^th century
Nagabhata I (730-756 CE) was the first important ruler. He defeated the advancing Arab armies at the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE)
Vatsaraja (775-805 CE) sought to capture Kannauj, which brought them into conflict with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. His attempts were unsuccessful
Nagabhata II (805-833 CE) rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath which had been earlier destroyed by Junaid of Sind

Conflict with Arab invaders

The Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas and Palas were in continuous conflict for over two centuries. The focal point of the conflict was the Kannauj Triangle.

The Sind region had been captured by Muhammad bin Qasim in 710 CE
His successor and Governor of Sind, Junaid, led an invasion into western and northern India in 738 CE
Junaid was defeated by the Rashtrakutas at Navsari (Gujarat) and by the Pratihara king Nagabhata I at Avanti
Nagabhata pursued the Arab armies as far as the Indus river ensuring that the Arabs remained on the other side of the Indus
The Pratiharas acted as a buffer against Arab armies from the west for the next two centuries and are credited with checking Arab advances into India

THE KANNAUJ TRIANGLE

The Rashtrakutas, Palas and Pratiharas were locked in continuous conflict between the 8^th and 10^th centuries CE
This tripartite struggle was primarily over control of Kannauj and the fertile Gangetic plains around it
The earliest known reference to the struggle is from the late 8^th century: Dharmapala defeated the Pratihara king Indraraja and captured Kannauj, only to be defeated by the Pratihara Vatsaraja, who was himself defeated by the Rashtrakuta Dhruva. Dharmapala retrieved Kannauj from the Rashtrakutas, but Kannauj was once again conquered by the Pratihara Nagabhata
The area around Kannauj, called the Kannauj triangle kept changing hand throughout the tripartite struggle

LAST WEEK: CHALUKYAS & PALLAVAS
~~~~~
NEXT WEEK: CHOLAS

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THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI

This post focuses on the early Chalukyas (6^th-8^th centuries CE) of Badami. The later Chalukyas (Western and Eastern) will be dealt with in later posts

Overview

Chalukya territories under Pulakesi II (c. 630 CE)

The Chalukyas ruled large parts of central and southern India between the 6^th and 12^th centuries
The Chalukyas consisted of three related dynasties
- Badami Chalukyas – earliest dynasty, 6^th-8^th centuries CE
- Eastern Chalukyas – 6^th – 11^th centuries
- Western Chalukyas – 10^th-12^th centuries
Chalukya rule was concentrated around present day Karnataka
The Chalukyas were the earliest known proponents of Kannada and were an important contributor to the growth of Kannada language
Inscriptions from Chalukya period are mainly in Kannada and Sanskrit

About the Chalukyas of Badami

The Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesi I in 543 CE
The capital of the Chalukya kingdom was Vatapi (modern Badami)
This family of early Chalukyas is known as Chalukyas of Badami
The Chalukyas of Badami ruled over all of Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh

About Pulakesi II

Pulakesi II, the son of Pulakesi I, was the most famous Chalukya emperor
Pulakesi II defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada and halted the southern expansion of Harsha’s kingdom
Pulakesi II also extended the Chalukya kingdom up to the northern portions of the Pallava kingdom in the south
Pulakesi II is famous for the Aihole inscription, which gives details regarding his defeat of Harsha

Chalukyas and Pallavas

The Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka

The Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas (of Kanchipuram) were in constant and continuous conflict for more than 200 years
Pulakesi II defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I and occupied large parts of northern Pallava kingdom
However, Mahendravarman’s son Narasimhavarman I defeated Pulakesi II, annexed large parts of the Chalukya kingdom and occupied Badami temporarily
This was again reversed by Chalukya Vikramaditya II who defeated Pallava Nandivarman II and carved a Kannada inscription on the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram

Architecture under the Chalukyas of Badami

The architecture of Badami Chalukyas marked an important phase in development of South Indian architecture
Their style of architecture is also called Karnata Dravida architecture
Most of their architectural work is concentrated in small area of the Chalukyan heartland in northern Karnataka
The earliest phase of architecture consists of cave temples at Aihole and Badami (6^th century). These temples had plan exteriors but exceptionally well finished interiors including pillared verandah, columned hall etc
The second phase was in Aihole and Badami (7^th century).
Important temples include: Lad Khan Temple (Aihole), and Meguti Jain Temple, Durga Temple, Huccimalli Gudi Temple at Badami
The final and mature phase was in Pattadakal and Badami (8^th century). Famous temples include: Bhutanatha Temples at Badami, Sangameswara, Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna Temples at Pattadakal
Chalukya architecture is known for its fusion of nagara and dravida architectural styles
Pattadakal is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site

THE PALLAVAS

Pallava territories under Narasimhavarman I (c. 650 CE)

Overview

The Pallavas ruled northern Tamil Nadu and all of Andhra Pradesh between the 3^rd and 9^th centuries CE
The capital of the Pallavas was Kanchipuram
The most famous kings of the Pallavas were Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE)
Throughout their reign, the Pallavas were in constant and continuous conflict with the Chalukyas of Badami as well the Cholas and Pandiyas to the south
The Pallavas are most famous for their patronage of architecture (eg at Mahabalipuram)
Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsand visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule
Pallava Simhavishnu, along with Pandya Kadungon, are credited with ending the much disliked Kalabhra rule in Tamil Nadu c. 600 CE
The official language of the Pallavas was Tamil, but they patronised Sanskrit and Telugu as well

About Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE)

Mahendravarman I was a great patron of literature, art and architecture
He is the author of the Sanskrit play Mattivilasa Prahasana
He was initially a Jain, but reconverted to Hinduism under the Saiva saint Appar
Mahendravarman I is considered to be the pioneer of rock cut architecture among the Pallavas
He also contributed greatly to the Sanskrit dramatised dance worship Kuttiyattam
He is also credited with inventing the seven string veena called Parivadhini

About Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE)

Narasimhavarman I was the most famous of Pallava rulers
He avenged his father’s defeat at the hands of the Chalukyas by defeating Pulakesi II in 642 CE and occupying Badami (Vatapi) temporarily. He then assumed the title Vatapikondan
Narasimhavarman I was also known by the name Mammallan
(great wrestler)
The Chinese Buddhist traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during his reign
The majority of the monuments at Mahabalipuram were constructed during the reign of Narasimhavarman I

About the monuments at Mahabalipuram

The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, the largest open air rock-relief in the world

The known structures at Mahabalipuram were built by Narasimhavarman I
The structures are mostly rock-cut and monolithic
The monuments are Mahabalipuram have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1984)
There are four main categories of monuments at Mahabalipuram
- Ratha Temples: temples in the form of chariots. There are five such structures making the Pancha Rathas
- Mandapas: cave sanctuaries covered with bas-reliefs. There are 11 such structures
- Rock relief: sculpted bas-relief on rocks
- Temples: temples cut out of rock

List of important structures at Mahabalipuram

Structure	Category	Notes
Decent of the Ganges (Arjuna’s Penance)	Bas-relief	Giant open-air relief carved out of monolithic rock Largest open-air rock relief in the world Interpreted to describe the descent of the river Ganges to earth (or) to describe the penance of Arjuna to receive a boon from Siva Also known as Bhagiratha’s Penance
Varaha Cave Temple	Rock-cut cave temple	Small monolithic temple Other cave temples include Krishna Cave Temple, Pancha Pandava Cave Temple
Five Rathas	Rock-cut temple	The Pancha Rathas consist of five temples, each in the shape of a chariot The temples were all carved out of a single large piece of stone
Shore Temple	Structural temple	Built with blocks of granite Sits on the shoreline of the Bay of Bengal Unlike other temples at Mahabalipuram, this is structural not rock-cut It is the earliest important structural temple in southern India

Recent archaeological findings at Mahabalipuram

There has been a long standing legend about the Seven Pagodas at Mahabalipuram, i.e. seven rock temples supposedly built on the shore. Until recently, no evidence to support the legend was found
However, the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 disrupted the shoreline and has exposed previously sunken monuments at Mahabalipuram
The most significant development was the uncovering of a large lion statue on the shore, dated to the 7^th century
Also uncovered was a small brick structure dated to the Sangam period, before the time of the Pallavas
Following this, the ASI and the Indian Navy explored the waters off Mahabalipuram in 2005 and found remains of two temples, one cave temple and a stone wall
Further research is awaited

PREVIOUS WEEK: ANCIENT SOURCES, SCIENCE & LITERATURE
~~~~~
NEXT WEEK: RASHTRAKUTAS

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ANCIENT INDIA: SOURCES, LITERATURE AND SCIENCE

INFORMATION SOURCES FOR ANCIENT INDIA

Indian literary sources

Source	Author	Language	Date	Notes
Veda Samhitas	Various	Sanskrit	1^st m. BCE	Gives account of life of people in addition to philosophy, religion etc
Arthashastra	Chanakya	Sanskrit	4^th c. BCE	Covers Mauryan period under Chandragupta Maurya Treatise on statecraft, economy and military strategy
Sangam literature	Various	Tamil	c. 600 BCE – 300 CE	Primarily Dealt with everyday themes

Foreign literary sources

Source	Author	Language	Date	Notes
Indika	Megasthenes	Greek	4^th c. BCE	Ambassador of Seleucus I to court of Chandragupta Maurya Used by later writers Strabo and Arrian Describes geography, politics, various kingdoms, caste system
Indica	Arrian	Greek	1^st c. CE	Considered one of most important sources about India Covers travel of Alexander’s officer Nearchus from India to Babylon Covers geography, esp. Indus and Ganges Describes social structure Describes seven castes, physical appearance, absence of slavery Used Indika (Megasthenes) as source
Geographica	Strabo	Greek	1^st c. CE	Descriptive history of people and places all over the world Consists of 17 volumes of material
	Fa-Hien	Chinese	Around 400 CE	Travelled to India/Ceylon to obtain Buddhist scriptures

Epigraphical sources

Note that more than 55% of epigraphical inscriptions in India are in Tamil

Inscription	Location	Attributed to (date)	Notes
Indus valley inscriptions	IVC	c. 2600 – 1900 BCE	Indus script remains undeciphered
Edicts of Asoka	All over India	Asoka 3^rd c. BCE	In Praktrit, Sanskrit, Greek See here for details
Heliodorus pillar	Besnagar (Madhya Pradesh)	c. 110 BCE	In Sanskrit (Brahmi) Dedicated by Heliodorus to god Vasudeva Heliodorus was the Ambassador of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to court of Sunga king Bhagabhadra Describes relationship b/w Sungas and Indo-Greeks
Hathigumpha incription	Udayagiri (Orissa)	Kharavela (Kalinga) (150 BCE)	In Prakrit (Brahmi script) Main source of info about Kharavela Mentions conflict with Demetrius Mentions conflict with Uttarapatha
Rabatak inscription	Rabatak (Afghanistan)	Kanishka 127-151 CE	In Bactrian (Greek script) Describes Kushan dynasty
Halmidi inscription	Halmidi (Karnataka)	c. 450 CE	Oldest inscription in Kannada (Brahmi script)

LITERATURE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Important ancient Sanskrit literature

Work	Category	Author (date)	Notes
Mahabharata	Epic	Vyasa
Ramayana	Epic	Valmiki
Ashtadhyayi	Treatise on grammar	Panini (5^th -4^th c. BCE)	One of the earliest known grammars of Sanskrit
Nirukta	Treatise on grammar	Yaksa
Mrichakatika	Play	Shudraka (2^nd c. BCE)	Set in Pataliputra Hindi film Utsav was based on this
Karnabhara, Charudatta	Play	Bhasa (1^st BCE – 4^th CE)	Bhasa wrote about 13 plays He is considered to be one of most important Sanskrit authors (after Kalidasa)
Urubhanga	Play	Bhasa	Based on Mahabharata Depicts story of Duryodhana after fight with Bhima
Madhyamavyayoga	Play	Bhasa	Based on the Mahabharata
Malavikagnimitram	Play	Kalidasa (4^th -5^th CE) Gupta period	Tells the story of King Agnimitra falling in love with servant girl Malavika Agnimitra was the son and successor to Pushyamitra Sunga
Abhijanasakuntalam	Play	Kalidasa	Tells story of king Dushyanta and his marriage to Shankuntala Considered to be Kalidasa’s most popular play
Vikramaorvasiyam	Play	Kalidasa	Story of king Pururavas in love with celestial Urvashi
Raghuvamsa	Poetry	Kalidasa	Kings of Raghu dynasty
Kumarasambhava	Poetry	Kalidasa	Story of birth of Karthikeya
Rtusamhara	Poetry	Kalidasa	Describes six seasons using context of love
Meghaduta	Poetry	Kalidasa	Story of a Yaksha sending a message to his lover through a cloud One of Kalidasa’s most popular poems
Ratnavali	Play	Harshavardhana (590-647 CE)	Story of king Udayana and princess Ratnavali Contains one of the earliest references to festival Holi
Nagananda	Play	Harshavardhana	Describes prince Jimutavahana’s self-sacrifice to save serpents
Priyadarsika	Play	Harshavardhana
Kiratarjuniya	Poetry	Bharavi	Describes contest b/w Arjuna and lord Shiva
Shishupala Vadha	Poetry	Magha

Important ancient literature in Tamil

Note that Sangam literature itself contains about 2400 poems by more than 470 poets. For obvious reasons, not all of them can be listed here

Work	Category	Author	Notes
Ettuthokai	Poetry	Various (600 BCE- 300 BCE)	Part of Sangam literature Ettuthokai contains 8 anthologies: Ainkurunuru, Akananuru, Purananuru, Kalittokai, Kuruntokai, Narrinai, Paripatal, Patirrupattu Each of these anthologies in turn contain hundreds of poems by multiple authors Deals with two themes: Akam (personal life) and Puram (war, politics) See here for more information on the Ettuthokai
Pathupattu	Poetry	Various	Part of Sangam literature Pathupattu contains 10 idylls (mid length books): Tirumurugattruppatai, Kurinjipattu, Malaipatukatam, Maturaikkanji, Mullaipattu, Netunalvatai, Pattinappalai, Perumpanatrupatai, Porunaratruppatai, Sirupanatrupatai Deals mainly with themes of nature See here for more information on Pathupattu
Tolkappiyam	Grammar	Tolkappiyar	Earliest available work of Tamil literature
Aimperumkappiyam	Epics	Various	Collection of five large narrative epics The five epics were: Silappadhigaram, Manimegalai, Sivaka Chintamani, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi Specific epics described below
Silappadhigaram	Epic	Ilango Adigal (1^st c. CE)	Describes story of Kannagi in her quest to save husband Kovalan Describes in detail life, politics, trade, settlements of Greeks etc Story evolves in themes of three: three kingdoms, three heroes, three heroines etc Considered one of most important ancient Tamil literature
Manimegalai	Epic	Seethalai Sathanar (1^st-2^nd c. CE)	Story of Manimegalai, daughter of Kovalan Sequel to Silappadhigaram
Sivaka Chintamani	Epic	Tirutakkatevar	Story of man who becomes king and then renounces throne
Valayapathi	Epic	Unknown	Work lost
Kundalakesi	Epic	Nagakuthanar	Original work lost, only fragments survive Supposedly describes story of Buddhist monk Kundalakesi
Tirukkural	Ethics	Thiruvalluvar	Couplets of ethics Contains 1330 couplets Thirukkural remains the book translated into most number of languages in the world

SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Work	Subject	Author	Notes
Vedanga Jyotisha	Astrology	Lagadha (1^st c. BCE)	Describes rules for tracking motion of sun and moon
Yavanajataka	Astrology	Sphujidvaja 1^st-2^nd c. CE)	Translated it mean “Nativity as per the Greeks” It is a collection of astrology-related ideas borrowed from Greek world Gives rules for building horoscopes
Surya Siddhanta	Astronomy		Establishes rules to determine motions of stellar objects
Paulisa Siddhanta (Doctrine of Paul)	Astronomy		Based on works of Paul of Alexandria (c. 378 CE)
Romaka Siddhanta (Doctrine of the Romans)	Astronomy		Based on works of Rome It is the only Indian work based on the tropical system
Vasishta Siddhanta	Astronomy		Attributed to sage Vasishta
Panchasiddhantika	Astronomy	Varahamihira (c. 550 CE)	Work that compares five treatises on astronomy viz. Surya Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Vasishta Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta
Sulba sutras	Mathematics	Baudhayana (c. 800 BCE), Apasthamba (c. 600 BCE), Katyayana (c. 200 BCE)	Baudhayana enumerated the Pythagoras theorem. He also described square root of 2 and geometric shapes such as squares and rectangles Apasthamba and Katyayana developed these principles further
Chandahsastra	Mathematics	Pingala (4^th-2^nd c. BCE)	First known description of binary numeral system in the world Also describes Pascal’s triangle, binomial theorem and Fibonacci numbers
Aryabhatiya	Astronomy, mathematics	Aryabhata (c 522 CE)	Introduced decimal value notation Describes heliocentric model of solar system Explained lunar and solar eclipses Gave duration of one year as 365 days 6 hrs 12 min 30 sec Gave value of pi (3.1416) Correctly calculated earth’s circumference as 24,835 miles Aryabhata’s principles are still in use for fixing the Hindu calendar Panchanga
Mahabhaskariya	Mathematics, astronomy	Bhaskara I (c. 600 – 680 CE)	Representation of numbers in positional system Solved Wilson’s theorem and Pell equation
Brahmasputasiddhanta	Mathematics, astronomy	Brahmagupta (c. 630 CE)	Describes solution of linear equation Solve system of simultaneous indeterminate equations Sum of series Introduced the concept of zero Formula for cyclic quadrilaterals Rebutted the idea that moon is farther from earth than the sun

PREVIOUS WEEK: VAKATAKA & VARDHANA
~~~~~
NEXT WEEK: CHALUKYAS & PALLAVAS

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VAKATAKA DYNASTY

The Vakataka Dynasty ruled parts of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradhesh from the third to fifth century
The Vakatakas are mentioned in the Puranas
The Vakataka Dynasty was founded by Vindhyashakti in 250 CE
The Dynasty had two branches: Pravapura-Nandivardhana branch and Vatsagulma branch
The Vakatakas patronised the building of Buddhist viharas and chaityas at the Ajanta Caves

Important Vakataka rulers

Vindhayashakti (250-270 CE) was the founder
Pravarasena I (270-330 CE) expanded the realm from Bundlekhand in the north to present Andhra Pradesh in the south
Harishena (475-500 CE) expanded the kingdom to include Avanti (Malwa) in the north, Kosala (Chattisgarh) in the east, Nasik in the west and Kuntala (southern Maharashtra) in the south
The rock cut vihara of Ajanta cave XI was built by Varahadeva, a minister of Harishena

HARSHAVARDHANA

Overview

Harshavardhana (540-647 CE) was a ruler who ruled northern India for 41 years
The Vardhana dynasty (although formally not known as such) was founded by Harshavardhana’s father, Prabhakar Vardhana
Harshavardhana was crowned king in 606 CE, at the age of 16
Harshavardhna rule is important for the stability it brought to northern India following the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6^th century
The Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta, is a biography of emperor Harsha. The Harshacharita was the first composition by Bana and the first historical work in Sanskrit
After Harsha’s death in 647 CE, without any heirs, his empire died with him

Harsha’s rule

Harsha established his capital at Kanauj
The extent of Harsha’s territory included Gujarat in the west, Punjab in the northwest, Magadha in the east and the river Narmada in the south
Harsha was prevented from conquering south of Narmada by Chalukya king Pulakesi II, who defeated Harsha’s army in 620 CE
Harsha converted to Buddhism
Harsha was the author of the Sankrit plays Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika
Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Harsha’s kingdom in 636 CE and is a valuable source of information
Harsha established the fist diplomatic relations between China and India, by sending a mission in 641 CE

PREVIOUS WEEK: GUPTA EMPIRE ~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: SOURCES, SCIENCE & LIT.

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THE GUPTA EMPIRE

Overview

The Gupta Empire. Territories added by the emperors and the Hun invasions that ultimately destroyed the empire

The Gupta Empire c.320 CE to c. 550 CE covered much of the Indian subcontinent
It was founded in c.320 CE by Sri Gupta
Important rulers of the Gupta empire were Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II
The Gupta period is known as the Golden Age of India due to scientific and artistic achievements made possible by the sustained peace and prosperity
The Gupta Empire is also known for the poet Kalidasa, the writing of the Puranas and the astronomers Varahamihira and Aryabhata
The Empire collapsed in the 6^th century CE following sustained invasions of Huns from Central Asia
The Chinese travellers Fa Hsien and Yijing visited India during the reign of the Guptas

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IMPORTANT GUPTA EMPERORS

Chandra Gupta I
1. The Gupta dynasty first rose to eminence under Chandra Gupta I
2. He ruled c. 319 CE – c. 335 CE
3. Chandra Gupta rose to prominence with his marriage to Kumaradevi, a Licchhavi princess (who were the main power in Magadha)
4. Chandra Gupta established a realm stretching from Pataliputra to Prayaga (Allahabad)
5. The Gupta Era, which commenced on 26 Feb 320 CE is attributed to the accession of Chandra Gupta I
Samudra Gupta
1. Samudra Gupta succeeded his father Chandra Gupta I
2. He ruled c 335 CE – 380 CE
3. His kingdom stretched from the Himalayas in the north to the Narmada in the south and the Brahmaputra in the east to the Yamuna in the west
4. Samudra Gupta is known as the Napoleon of India. He is considered to be the one of the greatest military geniuses in Indian history
5. Samudra Gupta granted permission to the Ceylon king Meghavarman to build a Buddhist monastery in Bodh Gaya
6. Samudra Gupta performed the Ashvamedha Yaga to underline the importance of his conquests
7. The Samudra Gupta Prashasti, inscribed on the Asoka Pillar, was authored by Harisena. It is an important source of information regarding his reign
8. Important scholars at his court were Harisena, Vasubandu and Asanga
Chandra Gupta II
1. Chandra Gupta II succeeded the Gupta throne after his father Samudra Gupta
2. He ruled 380 CE – 413 CE
3. Chandra Gupta expanded the empire westwards by defeating the Western Satraps (Sakas)
4. The Gupta Empire achieved its greatest extent under Chandra Gupta II, stretching up to the Indus in the west
5. The court of Chandra Gupta II was graced by the Navaratnas – a group of nine literary experts, including Kalidasa and Varahamira
6. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien visited India during the reign of Chandra Gupta II
7. Chandra Gupta II is also known as Vikramaditya
8. The Vikram-Samvat calendar marks the coronation of Chandra Gupta II
9. The iron pillar near the Qutub Minar (Delhi) was erected by Kumara Gupta, in memory of Chandra Gupta II. Made of 98% wrought iron, it has stood more than 1600 years without rusting or decomposing

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SOCIETY IN THE GUPTA EMPIRE

The division of society into the four classes was formalized
However, marriage rules were elastic
There were multiple types of marriages
- Brahma marriage: a duly dowreyed girl given in marriage to a man of the same class
- Prajapatya marriage: marriage without dowry
- Arsa marriage: token price of a cow and bull is given instead of dowry
- Daiva marriage: girl given to priest in lieu of his fees
- Asura marriage: marriage by purchase
- Rakshasa marriage: marriage by capture
- Paisacha marriage: marriage by abduction
- Gandharva marriage: love marriage

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CULTURAL LEGACY OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE

The iron pillar at Delhi erected by Chandra Gupta II has defied corrosion for over 1600 years

Aryabhata came up with the concept of zero, and postulated that the Earth revolves around the Sun, and determined the cause of eclipses
The works of Kalidasa marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature
Chess originated in the Gupta period
Indian numerals, the world’s first base 10 numeral system, originated in the Gupta Empire
The Kama Sutra was written by Vatsayana in the Gupta period
Varahamihira postulated that moon revolves around the sun

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About Aryabhata

Arybhata (476-550 CE) was the first in a line of great mathematicians-astronomers in India
His famous works are the Arbhatiyam and the Arya-Siddhanta
His discoveries in mathematics include
- Value and irrationality of Pi
- Area of a triangle, concept of sine
- Sum of series
- Intermediate equations
His discoveries relating to astronomy include
- Postulated Heliocentrism i.e. planets revolve around the Sun
- Calculated sidereal rotation (24 hrs) and sidereal year (365 days)
- Computed earth’s circumference
- Discovered cause of eclipses

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THE NAVARATNAS IN VIKRAMADITYA’S COURT

Person	Author of	Famous for
Dhanvantari		One of the world’s first surgeons Discovered antiseptic properties of turmeric and preservative properties of salt Pioneer of plastic surgery
Kshapanak
Amarasimha	Amara-Kosha	Thesaurus of Sanskrit
Shanka
Vetal Bhatt
Ghat Karpar
Varahamihira	Pancha-Siddhantika Brihat-Samhita	Postulated that the moon revolves around the Sun
Kalidasa	Three plays, four poems including Abhijanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa	One of the most famous literary figures in Sanskrit

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PREVIOUS WEEK: POST-MAURYAN DYNASTIES
~~~~~~
NEXT WEEK: VARDHANAS AND VAKATAKAS

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