Really sorry I have not been able to post any new content for a while. I’m in the middle of a major transition and have lots of things to attend to. I know this is the most crucial period for prelims preparation….sorry I’m not able to dedicate more time at this crucial juncture.

But the material already available will continue to be available. I’ll try to add a few quizzes every now and then, but not so sure about the study material.

Best of luck to you all….study well, and hope you all perform well in the exam.

Thanks

Ram

Sorry I’m tied up with other stuff, so can’t post study material this week. Hope everyone is preparing well for the exam.

Will resume posting next week (second week of March).

Overview

• India is the 9^th largest civil aviation market in the world
• The Indian civil aviation sector handles about 414,000 passengers every month. Annual passenger traffic growth is about 20%
• Civil aviation in India falls under the purview of the Ministry of Civil Aviation
• Civil aviation is regulated under the Aircraft Act 1934 and Aircraft Rules 1937
• The oldest airport in the country is the Nagpur airport
• The oldest airline in India was Tata Airlines, founded in 1932. It was re-named as Air India in 1946
• The first airline service in India was by Tata Airlines in 1932, flying mail from Karachi to Bombay
• The first international air service was by Air India in 1948, between Bombay and London

All governmental bodies listed below function under the Ministry of Civil Aviation

Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

• Headquarters New Delhi
• The DGCA is the governmental body that regulates civil aviation in India

• The DGCA is the nodal agency for implementing the 1944 Chicago Convention on civil aviation. The Chicago Convention established the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), an agency of UN in charge of regulating international air travel

• Its functions include
  • Registration of civil aircraft
  • Licensing of pilots and air traffic controllers
  • Formulation of standards of air worthiness for civil aircraft
  • Certification of aerodromes
  • Conducting investigations into accidents/incidents involving civil aviation
  • Coordination of ICAO matters
  • Supervision of flying schools
  • Keeping a check on aircraft noise and engine emissions
  • Promoting indigenous design and manufacture of aircraft

Bureau of Civil Aviation Safety (BCAS)

• Established 1978, headquarters New Delhi
• The BCAS was formed to coordinate, monitor, inspect and train personnel in civil aviation security matters
• The primary function of the BCAS is to establish the standards and measures with respect to civil aviation security at domestic and international airports in the country

Commission on Railway Safety (CRS)

• The erstwhile Railway Inspectorate (formed in 1883) was re-named the Commission on Railway Safety in 1961
• Headquarters Lucknow
• The functions of the CRS include
  • Inspect new railways and determine their fitness for public carriage of passengers
  • Make periodical and other inspections of railway and rolling stock
  • Investigate accidents/incidents related to the Railways
• The Commission on Railway Safety functions under the Ministry of Civil Aviation because of the desire to have a railways inspection authority independent of the Railway Board

National Aviation Company of India Ltd (NACIL)

• Established 2007. Headquarters Delhi/Mumbai
• The NACIL was formed as a holding company for the merger of Air India and Indian Airlines
• It is currently the largest airline operator in India

Airports Authority of India (AAI)

• Formed in 1995, headquarters New Delhi
• The AAI was formed by merging the International Airports Authority of India and the National Airports Authority
• The AAI operates and manages 126 airports in India. These include 12 international airports, 89 domestic airports and 26 civil enclaves
• The main functions of the AAI include
  • Control and management of Indian airspace
  • Development and operation of international and domestic airports and civil enclaves
  • Provision of communication, navigational and visual aids for flying (like Radar, ILS etc)

Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (IGRUA)

• Established 1985, located Raebareli (Uttar Pradesh)
• The main objective of the IGRUA is to improve flight training standard in civil aviation and to provide flight training to selected candidates

LAST WEEK: RAILWAYS ~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: SHIPPING

DELHI SULTANATE

Overview

• The Delhi Sultanate was a period from the 13^th to the 16^th centuries when several Turkic and Afghan dynasties ruled northern India from Delhi
• The dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate were
  
  • Mamluk dynasty (1206-1290)
  • Khilji dynasty (1290-1320)
  • Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413)
  • Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)
  • Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)
• The Delhi Sultanate was established upon the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 CE and was absorbed by the newly emerging Mughal Empire in 1526 CE
  

Mamluk Dynasty

• Also known as the Slave Dynasty, the Mamluk dynasty was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1206-1290 CE
• The Mamluks were essentially a Turkic people
• It was established by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak, a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori, who took over Ghori’s Indian territories following the latter’s death in 1206 CE
• Important rulers of the Mamluk dynasty include
  • Qutub-ud-din-Aybak (1206-1210 CE)
  • Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish (1211-1236)
  • Razia Sultana (1236-1240)
  • Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban (1266-1287)
• The Qutub Minar (New Delhi) was commissioned by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak in 1193 CE. At 72.5 m, it is the world’s tallest brick minaret and is one of the earliest and most prominent examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. It is part of the Qutub Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  
• Balban’s tomb is located in Mehrauli, New Delhi
• The Sultan Ghari, also in New Delhi, is the oldest Islamic mausoleum in India. It was built by Iltutmish for his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud in 1231 CE
• Razia Sultana was the first female ruler of a Muslim kingdom anywhere in the world
  

Khilji Dynasty

• The Khiljis were the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. They ruled north and northwestern India 1290-1320 CE
• They were Turko-Afghan people
• The greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din-Khilji (1296-1316 CE)
• Khilji attacked Chittor in 1303 after hearing of the beauty of queen Padmini, wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. This event is the setting of the epic poem Padmavat written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi (in 1540 CE), in the Awadhi language
• Khilji’s plunder of Gujarat in 1297 CE is noted for the loot of the Somnath temple and the destruction of the Sivalingam into pieces.
• Ala-ud-din-Khilji is noted for the first Muslim invasions of southern India. Khilji’s general, Malik Kafur, conquered Devagiri and Warangal, caused the collapse of the Hoysalas, and went as far south as Madurai, which was occupied for a brief period of time
• Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s most important achievement was repelling repeated Mongol invasions of India between 1294 CE and 1308 CE, which would inevitably have brought destruction and devastation on a colossal scale

Tughlaq Dynasty

• The Tughlaq dynasty ruled from 1321 to 1394 CE
• They were of Turkic origin
• The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas al-din Tughlaq in 1321 CE
• The most important ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty was Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE)
  
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a renown scholar, was tolerant towards other religions and an innovative administrator. However, his experiments in reforming public administration often failed, earning him much satire
• He was responsible for the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate southwards into the Deccan region
  
• In order to strengthen his hold on newly conquered territories in peninsular India, Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital of the Sultanate from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra (which was renamed Daulatabad). Due to poor planning and facilities, the capital had to be moved back to Delhi two years later.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq also introduced copper-based token currency, the first such experiment in India. Although the copper currency was backed by gold and silver in government reserves, the switch was not embraced by the public and the experiment had to be abandoned
  
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE). Firoz Shah Tughlaq re-built the top two storeys of the Qutub Minar with white marble, when the earlier structure was partially destroyed by lightning

Sayyid Dynasty

• The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 CE to 1451 CE
• The Sayyid’s came to power following a power vacuum induced by Timur’s invasion and devastation of Delhi in 1398 CE

Lodi Dynasty

• The Lodi dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 CE to 1526
• They were of Afghan origin
• The Lodi dynasty was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi in 1451 CE
• Sikandar Lodi (1489 CE-1517) founded the city of Agra in 1504. He attacked Gwalior five times but was repulsed each time by Maharaja Mansingh of Gwalior
• The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty was Ibrahim Lodi (1489 CE-1526).
• Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Afghan Mughal Babur in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. With this, the Delhi Sultanate was dissolved and the Mughal Empire was established
  

Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate

• Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was insulating the Indian subcontinent from the devastation of Mongol invasions in the 13^th century
  
• However, the Delhi Sultanate failed to prevent the sacking of Delhi by Timur (aka Tamerlane). Timur sacked and pillaged Delhi in 1398 CE, leading to widespread devastation and destruction
  
• The Delhi Sultanate established a network of market centres through which traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated
• Agricultural practices of shifting to cash crops (like sugarcane) instead of food crops were encouraged
  

DECCAN SULTANATES

Overview

• The Deccan Sultanates were five Muslim ruled kingdoms located in the Deccan plateau
• They ruled south central India from 1527 to 1686
• The Deccan Sultanates were established following the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1527
• The five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanates were
  • Ahmadnagar (1490-1636)
    
  • Bijapur (1490-1686)
    
  • Berar (1490-1572)
    
  • Golkonda (1518-1687)
    
  • Bidar (1528-1619)
    
• The Deccan Sultanates were generally rivals but united against the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of Tallikota in 1565
  
• An important cultural contribution of the Deccan Sultanates was the development of Dakhani Urdu – drawn from Arabic, Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu
• The period is also famous for the development of Deccani miniature paintings, which flourished in Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda

Ahmadnagar Sultanate

• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was located in northwestern Deccan, between the Gujarat and Bijapur sultanate
• The Sultanate was established by Malik Ahmad in 1490, who founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty
  
• The capital city of the Sultanate was initially Junnar, which was later shifted to Ahmadnagar
• The earliest examples of miniature paintings are found in the manuscript Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi (c. 1565)
  
• This period is also known for the encyclopaedia Nrisimha Prasada written by Dalapati
• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb (during the reign of Shah Jahan) in 1636

Berar Sultanate

• The Berar Sultanate was established by Imad-ul Mulk in 1490
• It was annexed by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in 1572

Bidar Sultanate

• The Bidar Sultanate was established by Qasim Barid in 1490
• Bidar was sandwiched between the Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda sultanates
• Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1619
• An important type of metalwork called Bidri originated in Bidar. These metalworks were carried out on black metal (mainly zinc) with inlaid designs of silver, brass and copper
  

Bijapur Sultanate

• The Bijapur Sultanate was established by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490, who founded the Adil Shahi dynasty
  
• The Bijapur Sultanate was located in northern Karnataka, with its capital at Bijapur
• Under the Adil Shahi dynasty, Bijapur became an important centre of commerce and culture in India
• The Begum Talab was a 234 acre tank constructed by Mohammad Adil Shah in 1651 in memory of Jahan Begum. Underground pipes, encased in masonry supplied water from the tank to the city residents
• Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote a book of songs in Dakhani urdu called Kitab-i-Navras. This work contains a number of songs set to different ragas
• The Bijapur Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686

Golconda Sultanate

• The Golconda Sultanate was established in 1518 by Qutb-ul-Mulk, who founded the Qutb Shahi dynasty
  
• The Golconda Sultanate was located in northern Andhra Pradesh
• The capital city was Hyderabad
• The Qutb Shahi dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Jami Masjid (1518), Charminar (1591) and Mecca Masjid (1617)
  
• Another famous structure from the period is the fort of Golconda
• The Shahi dynasty was instrumental in the development of Dakhani urdu
• Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote the Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in Dakhani urdu
  
• Golconda was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687
  

LAST WEEK: MUSLIM INVASIONS~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

DESERTS

Overview

• A desert is a region that receives almost no rainfall. In general deserts are areas with a moisture deficit i.e. lose more moisture than receive
• Deserts are defined as areas with average precipitation less than 250 mm per year or where more water is lost by evaporation and transpiration than falls by precipitation
  
• Deserts are located where vegetation is sparse or nonexistent
  
• Deserts constitute about one third (33%) of the Earth’s land surface
  
• The largest desert on Earth is Antarctica
  

Classification of deserts

The world's largest deserts (excluding polar deserts)

• Hot deserts
  
  • This is the most common form of desert
    
  • They have large diurnal (daily) and seasonal temperature variation, with daytime temperatures reaching more than 45 C in the summer and dipping to 0 C at night in the winter
    
  • Water acts to trap IR radiation from both the sun and the ground, and dry desert air is incapable of blocking sunlight during the day or trapping heat at night
    
  • The largest hot desert is the Sahara Desert
    
• Cold deserts
  
  • Cold deserts (aka polar deserts) are deserts which occur in extremely cold regions. In cold deserts, the mean temperature during the warmest month is less than 10 C
    
  • Cold deserts form due to extreme lack of precipitation (in the form)
    
  • Cold deserts are covered in snow and ice. Due to lack of liquid water, cold deserts cannot support life
    
  • Instead of sand dunes, polar deserts have snow dunes (in areas where precipitation is locally available)
  • The largest cold desert is the continent of Antarctica
    
• Montane deserts
  
  • Montane deserts are deserts that occur at very high altitudes
    
  • Example: Ladakh, Tibet
    
  • These places are profoundly arid (low humidity) due to their large distance from the nearest available source of moisture
    
• Rain shadow deserts
  
  • Rain shadow deserts form when tall mountain ranges block clouds from reaching areas in the direction of the wind
    
  • As air moves over the mountains, air cools and moisture condenses, causing precipitation on the windward side of the mountain. When the air reaches the leeward side, it is dry since it has already lost all its moisture, resulting in a desert
    
  • Example: Tirunelveli area in southern Tamil Nadu
    

Flora and Fauna in deserts

The snow surface at Dome C in Antarctica is representative of most of the continent's surface

• Although deserts are generally thought to support little life, in reality deserts do have high biodiversity
• Animals in the desert include kangaroo rat, coyote, jackal, jack rabbit and lizards
• Most desert animals remain hidden during the daytime to control body temperature and limit moisture needs
  
• Animals that have adapted to live in deserts are called xerocoles. A particularly well-studied adaptation is the specialisation of mammalian kidneys shown by desert-inhabiting species
• Deserts typically have plant cover that is sparse but diverse
• Most desert plants are salt and drought tolerant, such as xerophytes
• Some desert plants store water in their leaves, stems and roots. Others have long taproots that penetrate deep into the ground to reach the water table, or have roots that spread over a wider area in order absorb moisture from the ground
• Another desert adaptation is the development of long spiny needle-like leaves that lose less moisture to transpiration
  
• The giant Saguaro cacti, which grow to about 15 m height, are commonly found in the Sonora desert in Arizona (USA). The Saguaro cacti grow slowly but live up to 200 years, provide nests for desert birds and serve as desert trees
  

Water in deserts

• Rain does fall occasionally on deserts, and when they do, desert storms are often violent
• Large storms in the Sahara deliver up to 1mm of rain per minute
• Normally dry streams, called arroyos or wadis, can quickly fill up following rain and cause dangerous flash floods
  
• A few deserts are also crossed by ‘exotic’ rivers – rivers that originate elsewhere but run through desert areas. These rivers lose enormous quantities of water to evaporation while journeying through the desert, but have sufficient volume to ensure continuous flow. Examples: Nile, Colorado and Yellow rivers
• Desert lakes can form where rainwater or meltwater in interior drainage basins is sufficient. Desert lakes are usually salty, shallow and temporary.
  
• Since they are shallow, wind stress can make the lake waters move over several sq km.
  
• When desert lakes dry up, they leave a salt crust or hardpan. This flat area of clay, silt and sand encrusted by sand is called a playa or sink. The flat terrains of playas and hardpans makes them excellent speedways and natural runways for aircraft
• Examples of desert lakes: Great Salt Lake (Utah, USA)
  
• The Atacama Desert in Chile is the driest place on Earth. Blocked from moisture on both sides by the Andes and the Chilean coastal range, the Atacama is virtually sterile and devoid of all life. The average rainfall in the region is 1 mm per year. Some weather stations in the desert have never received rain.
  

Mineral resources in deserts

The Saguaro Cactus tree in the Sonoran Desert (USA) can grow up to 15 m and live up to 200 years

• Deserts may contain a great amount of mineral resources over their entire surface
• The red colour of many sand deserts is due to the occurrence of laterite. Laterite, rich in iron and aluminium, is commonly used in making bricks
• Evaporation enriches mineral accumulation in desert lakes, including gypsum, sodium salts and borates
• The Great Basin Desert (USA) has been extensively used to mine borates, which are used in the manufacture of glass
• The Atacama Desert (Chile) is abundant in saline minerals. Sodium nitrate for fertilisers and explosives has been mined from the Atacama since the middle of the 19^th century
• Significant petroleum deposits are found in desert regions. However, these oil fields were originally formed when the areas were shallow marine environments. Subsequent climate change has rendered these regions arid
• Deserts are also increasingly seen as sources of solar energy. It is estimated that all the world’s electricity needs could be met by 10% of the solar energy tapped from the Sahara Desert

Oasis

• An oasis is an isolated area of vegetation in a desert, usually surrounding a spring or similar water source
• Oases provide natural habitats for animals, plants and even humans
• Oases are formed from underground rivers or aquifers, where water reaches the surface by natural pressure

List of important deserts

DESERTIFICATION

Overview

• Desertification is the extreme deterioration of land in arid and dry areas due to loss of vegetation and soil moisture
  
• Desertification results mainly from human activities but is influenced by climatic variations
• Desertification directly results in biodiversity loss and loss of productive capacity

Causes of desertification

• The primary reasons for desertification are
  
  • overgrazing
  • over-cultivation
  • increased fire frequency
  • water impoundment
  • deforestation
  • overdraft of ground water
  • increased soil salinity
  • climate change
• Droughts by themselves do not cause desertification. However, continued land abuse during droughts increases land degradation leading to desertification.
• Nomadic lifestyles with slash and burn agriculture can directly lead to desertification

Historical and current desertification

The Atacama Desert (Chile), the driest place on Earth, is almost completely sterile and devoid of all life. The only such place on Earth, it has often been compared to planet Mars.

• Desertification is a historic phenomenon: the world’s largest deserts were formed by natural processes over long intervals of time.
  
• Dated fossil pollen indicate that the Sahara has been changing between desert and fertile savanna. The Sahara is currently expanding southward at a rate of 48 km per year
  
• Drought and overgrazing in the 1930s transformed parts of the Great Plains in the US into the Dust Bowl
• Slash and burn agriculture in Madagascar has caused almost 10% of the country to become barren, sterile land

Countering desertification

• Counter-desertification techniques usually focus on two major aspects
  • Provisioning of water
    
  • Fixating and hyper-fertilising soils
    
• Fixating of soils is done by means of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Made from trees and bushes, these reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration
• Soil fertilisation and enrichment is often achieved using leguminous plants (which extract nitrogen from air and fix into soil). Grains, barley, beans and dates are used for this purpose
• Stacking stones around the base of trees and artificial groove digging can also help plant survival by collecting morning dew and retaining soil moisture
• Desertification can also be temporarily forestalled by using sand fences (using bushes and trees), which decrease wind velocity and hence soil erosion and moisture loss
• The Green Wall project in Africa aims to plant trees in a 15 km strip from Senegal in the west to Djibouti in the east. The project aims to counter desert progression while also providing economic opportunities to the local populations
  

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

• The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) aims to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought
  
• The Convention was adopted in Paris in 1994 and came into effect in 1996. The UNCCD has 193 member nations including India
• The Convention seeks to achieve its goals through national-level action programmes that incorporate long term strategies supported by international cooperation
• It is the first and only legally binding framework to address the problem of desertification
• The nodal agency for implementing the UNCCD in India is the Ministry of Environment and Forests
  

LAST WEEK: FORESTS
~~~~~
NEXT WEEK: TUNDRA, WETLANDS

1. Critically Endangered Sumatran Rhino expecting calf
   
   1. This development is considered as a breakthrough in conservation efforts to save the Sumatran rhino from extinction
   2. The Sumatran Rhino is listed as Critically Endangered, and is mostly found in the island of Sumatra (Indonesia)
      
   3. The number of Sumatran rhinos have halved in the past fifteen years, with only about 200 surviving in the world today
      
   4. The eight year old rhino in a wildlife reserve in Sumatra is expected to give birth in May 2010. It will be the fourth Sumatran rhino calf to be born in captivity
   5. The two-horned Sumatran rhino is the smallest of the world’s five rhino species
      
   6. Rhino have been heavily poached for their horns that are believed to have medicinal properties, especially in East Asian medicine
2. Marine Census discovers 5000 new species
   
   1. A preview of the Census of Marine Life has revealed that the project has discovered more than 5000 new species
      
   2. Scientists presented these early findings in San Diego. The final report from the decade-long census will be released in Oct 2010
   3. The project has involved more than 2000 scientists from 80 countries
   4. The new species found include bizarre and colourful creatures as well as organisms that produce therapeutic chemicals
   5. Findings include the Kiwa hirsuta family of crabs, so named because of their extremely furry appearance, discovered near Easter Island
      
   6. A new species of sponge that produce an anti-cancer chemical have been found in the Florida Keys
      
   7. The census is expected to help develop policies that will better protect marine species and habitats
3. Microsoft-Yahoo search deal approved
   
   1. Microsoft’s plans to buy Yahoo’s internet search and search advertising businesses have been cleared by both European and American regulators
      
   2. Both the European Commission (EC) and the US Dept. of Justice have ruled that the deal will enhance competition and be beneficial to consumers
   3. Major business deals such as this require approval from the Dept. of Justice and the EC in order to be valid in the US and Europe respectively
      
   4. Under the deal, Yahoo will use Microsoft’s Bing search engine, while Yahoo will provide the main advertising sales team for Bing
   5. Yahoo is the internet’s second largest search engine in terms of usage, while Bing is the third. Google, with about 65% market share, is the first. This deal will establish Bing as the second in the market
4. New tiger reserve declared
   
   1. The Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala has been declared as India’s 38^th Tiger Reserve
      
   2. The Parambikulam Tiger Reserve in the Sungam Hills between the Anaimalai Hills and Nelliampathy Hills in the Western Ghats in Kerala
      
   3. It is estimated that there are 15 tigers in the Parambikulam reserve. Parambikulam is also home to numerous reptiles, birds and other species
   4. It is estimated that there are about 1100-1200 tigers in India
   5. The Parambikulam Tiger Reserve is the second Tiger Reserve in Kerala, the other one being the Periyar Tiger Reserve
      
5. New farming system heralded
   
   1. A new system of farming based on using fertiliser trees to increase crop yield is being heralded by scientists from around the world
   2. The system uses the Acacia tree to increase nitrogen content in soils which leads to increase in crop yields of as much as 150%
      
   3. The Acacia tree stores the same amount of nitrogen in its leaves as about three bags of commercial fertiliser. When the leaves die and fall to the ground, the nitrogen is released into the soil
   4. The system, used traditionally in Africa, is expected to greatly benefit paddy yields in India, decrease fertiliser use and help address climate change
   5. Other benefits of using the Acadia trees for fertilisers include timber and fuel for farmers, longer growing seasons and higher resistance to drought
6. Chennai Declaration on Biodiversity adopted
   
   1. The Chennai Declaration on Biodiversity has been adopted, calling on nations to prioritise conservation of the earth’s multitude of plant, agricultural, forest and marine species
      
   2. The Declaration was adopted by representatives of organisations like the UN Environment Programme, UN Food and Agricultural Organisation (UNFAO), the International Rice Research Institute, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the World Food Prize Fund, and India’s National biodiversity Authority and the Ministry of Environment and Forests
   3. The Declaration was adopted on 17 Feb 2010 after days of negotiation at the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation in Chennai
      
   4. Among the strategies set out by the Declaration are
      1. According economic value to services rendered by nature and agriculture
      2. Finding markets for neglected but nutritious crops
      3. Including rural communities in biodiversity strategies
      4. Promoting biodiversity literacy through public education
      5. Refocusing research and development priorities
   5. 2010 is the International Year of Biodiveristy

RAILWAYS IN INDIA

Overview

• The railway network in India is the fourth largest in the world
  
• India’s railway network transports over 6 billion passengers and 350 million tonnes of freight annually
• Railways in India traverse the length and breadth of the country, with about 7000 stations and total route length of over 63,000 km. About 28% of the route length has been electrified

History of railways in India

Extent of the railway network in India in 1909

• The first railway line in the Indian subcontinent was established in Madras in 1836. The first line was established near Chintadripet Bridge on an experimental basis. In 1837, a 3.5 mile line was commissioned between Red Hills and the stone quarries at St Thomas Mount
• The regular first train in India was operationalised in 1851 for localised hauling of canal construction material in Roorkee
  
• Two railways companies – the Great Indian Peninsular Railway (GIPR) and the East Indian Railway (EIR) were created in 1853 to construct and operate experimental railway lines near Bombay and Calcutta respectively
• The first passenger train service in India was inaugurated between Bombay (Bori Bundar) and Thane in 1853
  
• In 1923, both the GIPR and the EIR were nationalised
• Upon Independence in 1947, forty two separate railway systems in India were amalgamated into a single unit christened the Indian Railways. The Indian Railways thus became one of the largest railway networks in the world
• Railway zones were established in 1951

The Indian Railways

• The Indian Railways is the state-owned railway company of India, which owns and operates most of India’s rail transport
• The Indian Railways was formed in 1947 by the amalgamation of 42 disparate railway networks
• The Indian Railways functions under the Ministry of Railways
• The Indian Railways is one of the world’s largest commercial employers with over 1.4 million employees
  
• The Indian Railways operates both long distance and suburban rail services

Railway zones

• The Indian Railways is divided into 16 zones, which are further subdivided into divisions
• The Kolkata Metro, although owned and operated by the Indian Railways, is part of any zone
• Each of the 16 zones is headed by a General Manager. Divisions are headed by Divisional Railway Managers
• The oldest railway zone is the Southern Railways, established in Apr 1951
  

Technical details of railways in India

Comparison of the different railway gauges used in India. The Standard Gauge, which is used internationally, is not used in India

• The Indian Railways uses four gauges
  • Indian Broad Gauge: 1676 mm (5ft 6in). This is the most widely used gauge in India. It is broader than the international Standard Gauge (1435 mm i.e. 4ft 8.5in)
    
  • Meter Gauge: 1000 mm (3ft 3.5in)
  • Narrow Gauge: 762 mm (2ft 6in)
  • Narrow Gauge: 610 mm (2ft)
• Project Unigauge was launched in 1980 to convert all portions of track to broad gauge
• Narrow gauge is presently used on Kalka-Simla Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway
  
• Almost all electrified sections of track use 25,000 V AC traction through overhead catenaries
  
• Exceptions to this include
  • Mumbai section, which uses 1500 V DC traction
  • Kolkata Metro which uses 750 V DC, delivered via third rail

Suburban railways

• Suburban railways are currently operational in Mumbai, Kolkata, New Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, Pune and Lucknow-Kanpur
• The New Delhi Metro, Kolkata Metro and Chennai MRTS have their own dedicated track
• Suburban trains handling passenger traffic usually use Electric Multiple Units (EMU)
• The oldest underground railway network in India is the Kolkata Metro, commissioned in 1984. The second underground network, the Delhi Metro, started operations in 2002

Special railways in India

• There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on the Indian Railways
  
  • Chatrapathi Shivaji Terminus (Victoria Terminus), Mumbai
  • Mountain railways of India
• The Mountain Railways of India consists of three separate railway systems i.e. the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the Kalka-Simla Railway
• Darjeeling Himalayan Railway
  
  • It is a 2ft narrow gauge railway
  • Operates between Siliguri and Darjeeling in West Bengal
  • Built 1889-1891. Added to UNESCO World Heritage List 1999
• Nilgiri Mountain Railway

  

  The rack and pinion system on the Nilgiri Mountain Railway

  • Uses a 3ft 3 3/8 in metre gauge
  • Connects Mettupalayam with Ooty in Tamil Nadu
  • Only railway in India to use rack-and-pinion system
    
  • Has the highest railway gradient in India (average of 4%, at places as high as 8%)
    
  • Added to UNESCO World Heritage List in 2005
    
• Kalka-Simla Railway
  
  • It is a 2ft 6in narrow gauge railway
  • Operates between Kalka in Haryana and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh
  • Added to UNESCO World Heritage List 2008
• Konkan Railway
  • The Konkan Railway runs along the Konkan coast of India, between Mangalore in Karnataka and Mumbai in Maharashtra. It was opened in 1998
  • The Konkan Railway introduced India’s first Roll on Roll off (RORO) freight service in 1999, which allows trucks to be transported on flatbed trailers
• Kashmir Railway
  
  • The Kashmir Railway, also known as Jammu Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Rail Link (JUSBRL) is intended to connect to Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of the country by means of railways
  • Currently under construction, the project is expected to complete in 2017. The first phase of the project, between Jammu and Udhampur was completed in 2005
  • When completed the Kashmir Railway will connect Jammu with Baramulla, a distance of 345 km
  • The entire project has been divided in four legs or phases
    • Leg 0: Jammu-Udhampur (53 km). Completed Apr 2005
    • Leg 1: Udhampur-Katra (25 km). Expected completion 2012
    • Leg 2: Katra-Qazigund (148 km). Expected completion 2017
    • Leg 3: Qazigund-Baramulla (119 km). Completed Oct 2009
  • The route crosses major earthquake zones, and is subject to extreme temperatures and inhospitable terrain
  • The Kashmir Railway has the highest railway bridge in India: 77m over the Tawi river in the Jammu-Udhampur section.
  • When the Kashmir Railway is completed, the Chenab Bridge will be the highest railway structure in the world (359 m above river bed), making it taller than the Eiffel Tower

Notable facts about the Indian Railways

Map of the Kashmir Railway. Leg 0 (black line) and Leg 3 (red line) are currently operational. Leg 1 (blue line) and Leg 2 (green line) are under construction

• The
  Palace on Wheels is India’s first luxury train. It was launched in 1962. It travels from New Delhi to Jaipur, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Sawai Madhopur, Chittaurgarh, Udaipur, Bharatpur and Agra
• The Fairy Queen, built in 1855, is the world’s oldest steam engine still in active use. It currently operates a special tourist service from New Delhi to Alwar in Rajasthan, to the Sariska Tiger Reserve
• The Lifeline Express, commissioned in 1991, is India’s mobile hospital train run by the Impact India Foundation, in collaboration with the Indian Railways and the Ministry of Health
• The Himsagar Express, between Kanyakumari and Jammu Tawi, has the longest run in terms of distance and time in the Indian Railways. It covers a distance of 3745 km about 75 hours
• The Bhopal Shatabdi Express is the fastest train in India, having a maximum operating speed of 150 kmph
• The Kharagpur Railways Station has the world’s longest railway platform (1072 m)

International rail links

• India has rail links with Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh
• India-Pakistan rail links
  
  • Samjhauta Express: Amritsar (Punjab, India) – Lahore (Punjab, Pakistan)
    
  • Thar Express:
    Munabao (Rajasthan, India) – Khokhrapar (Sindh, Pakistan)
• India-Bangladesh rail links
  
  • There are two freight links between India and Bangladesh. However there is no passenger rail link
    
  • Mahishasan (West Bengal, India) – Shahbazpur (Bangladesh)
  • Radhikapur (West Bengal, India) – Birol (Bangladesh)
• India-Nepal rail links
  
  • Raxaul (Bihar, India) – Sirsiya (Parsa, Nepal)
  • Jaynagar (Bihar, India) – Khajuri (Dhanusa, Nepal)

Private railways in India

• Although the Indian Railways enjoys a near monopoly on rail transport in India, a few private railways do exist
• Private railways are also owned and operated by companies for their own purposes such as harbours, ports, steel mills, mines etc
  
• Private railways in India are principally for freight and not for passenger transport
  
• The Bombay Port Trust, Madras Port Trust and Calcutta Port Trust all run their own broad gauge lines
• The Tatas operate furnicular railways (inclined railways) at Bhira and Bhivpuri Road in Maharashtra
• The Kutch Railway Company, a joint venture between the Gujarat government and private companies is in the process of building a Gandhidham-Palanpur railway line

LAST WEEK: ROADS
~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: CIVIL AVIATION

Overview

• Muslim conquests in India started in the 12^th century. However, periodical raids into India started as early as the 7^th century
• The earliest Muslim foray into India occurred in 664 CE by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, the governor of Khorasan (Iran) under the Ummayad Caliphate
• Invasions into India were carried out from the northwest over a period of centuries by Arabs, Turkic, Mongol and Turco-Mongol peoples

Impact of Muslim conquests

• The presence of Islamic governments from Spain/Morocco to Indonesia facilitated trade and enabled the establishment of a common legal system
• Ceramic tiles were introduced into India based on architectural designs in Persia and Central Asia
• Blue pottery (famous in Rajasthan) was cultivated by Muslim rulers who imported it in large quantities from China
• Numerous Indian scientific and mathematical advancements, including the numeral system, spread to the rest of the world
• Islamic languages were modified on contact with local languages to produce Urdu, which uses Persian words in the Arabic script

Conquest during the Rashudin Caliphate

• The Rashudin Caliphate was founded immediately after Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. At its height, the Rashudin Caliphate extended from North Africa to Persia, and parts of Afghanistan/Baluchistan
• During Rashudin Caliphate, significant conquests were made northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, especially areas like Makran and Sindh (in Pakistan)
• These early conquests were primarily an extension of campaigns to conquer and annex the Sassanid Persian empire in the mid seventh century
• Islamic forces first entered Sindh in 644 CE during the reign of Caliph Umar, and established the eastern frontier of the Caliphate as the Makran region in Baluchistan

Conquest during the Ummayad Caliphate

• The Umayyad Caliphate was the second and largest of the four major Caliphates established following Muhammad’s death. It was established in 660 CE. At its height, it extended from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain/Portugal) to northwestern India
• In 712 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate sent an expedition under Muhammad bin Qasim, who defeated Raja Dahir of Sindh. He then annexed territory from Karachi to Multan.
• This was the first significant Islamic expansion into traditionally Indian territories
• The main objective of the expedition was the Sun Mandir at Multan, known as the ‘City of Gold’ due to its wealth
• Qasim was immediately recalled to Baghdad by the Caliph, and the newly acquired territories were then administered by weak governors who only nominally acknowledged Arab authority
• Qasim’s successor, Junaid, was then defeated by a conglomeration of Hindu Rajput clans, including the Pratiharas, in the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE). Following this defeat, Islamic expansion into India was stopped at the Indus for the next three centuries
• Multan became a centre of the Islmaili sect of Islam
• The northern regions comprising the Punjab remained under the control of Hindu kings, while the southern regions comprising Baluchistan, Sindh and Multan passed into Muslim control

Mahmud of Ghazni

• Mahmud of Ghazni was the most prominent ruler of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty
• He ruled from 997 CE  to 1030 CE
• The capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty was Ghazni in Afghanistan
• At its height, the Ghaznavid territories included most of Iran and Pakistan and parts of northwestern India
• Mahmud Ghazni was the first ruler to carry the title Sultan
• Ghazni’s first expansion into India was his conquest of the Hindu Shahi dynasty which ruled Lahore and parts of Kashmir. Ghazni defeated and conquered Raja Anandapala of the Shahi dynasty in 1008 CE
• Over the next decade, Ghazni conquered the kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Gwalior and Ujjain

Muhammad of Ghor

• Muhammad of Ghor (also known as Muhammad Ghori) was the sultan of the Ghorid dynasty centred in Afghanistan. Ghori ruled from 1202 to 1206 CE
• His capital was the city of Ghor in Afghanistan
• Muhammad Ghori defeated and dissolved the Ghaznavid dynasty in 1186 CE, thereby establishing the Ghorid dynasty
• He initially ruled as governor under his brother Ghiyas ud-Din Muhammad, and later became king following the latter’s death in 1202
• Ghori extended Islamic rule in India much further east than the earlier Ghaznavid kingdom
• Muhammad Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer at the First Battle of Tarain (Haryana) in 1191 CE
• The next year, Ghori once again attacked and this time defeated Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE
• Following this, Ghori captured the Rajput kingdoms of Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi. Ghori also captured Ajmer and Delhi, thereby ending Hindu rule in Delhi, with Prithviraj Chauhan becoming the last Hindu ruler of Delhi
• Since he had no heirs, Ghori’s kingdom passed into the hands of his Turkic slaves upon his death in 1206 CE. One of his slaves, Qutbuddin Aybak, took control of Ghori’s Indian territories and founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

LAST WEEK: CHALUKYAS, HOYSALAS, PANDYAS ~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: DELHI AND DECCAN SULTANATES

FORESTS

Overview

• Forests are areas with a high density of trees

• Forests cover approximately 9.4% of the Earth’s surface i.e. about 30% of total land area, although they used to cover as much as 50% of land area

• Forests are differentiated from woodland by the extent of canopy coverage: in forests, the foliage of trees meet and interlock while in woodlands there is enough gap between trees allowing sunlight to penetrate to the ground
• Forests are one of the most important aspects of the Earth’s biosphere
• The functions of forests include
  • Habitat for organisms

  • Hydrologic flow modulation

  • Soil conservation

• Human factors affecting forest sustenance include logging, urban sprawl, agriculture, industries, human-induced forest fires etc. Natural factors affecting forests include forest fires, insects, diseases, weather etc

• Only about 20% of the world’s original forests remain in undisturbed forest. Of this, 75% are in Russia, Canada and Brazil

Distribution of forests

• In general, forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth (at altitudes up to the tree line), except where natural disturbance is too high or human activity has altered the environment
• The areas between latitudes 10 N and 10 S are mostly covered in tropical rainforests, and between 53N and 67N have boreal forests (taiga)

• Forests can contain many species in a small area (like rainforests) or relatively few species in a large area (like taiga and montane coniferous forests)
• Forests have higher biomass per unit area compared to other vegetation types. Much of the forest biomass occurs below the ground in root systems and partially decomposed detritus
• The major types of forest systems are
  • Rainforests (both tropical and temperate)

  • Taiga

  • Temperate broadleaf forests

  • Tropical dry forests

Temperate rainforest in Washington, USA (northwestern USA)

Old growth forests

• Old growth forests (also called primary forests, ancient forests) are forests that contain trees which have attained great age

• Old growth forests typically contain large and old live trees, large dead trees and large logs
• Death of individual trees creates gaps in the canopy layer allowing light to penetrate and create favourable conditions for undergrowth
• Old growth forests are often home to rare and threatened species, making them ecologically significant. For instance, the Northern Spotted Owl is reliant on old growth forest
• The importance of old growth forests include
  • They contain rich communities of plants and animals due to the long period of forest stability
  • They serve as a reservoir for species that cannot thrive or regenerate in younger forests
  • They store large amounts of carbon both above and below the ground (either as humus or in wet soils as peat)
• Forests that are regenerated after disruptions must wait several centuries to millennia before they can reach the stable equilibrium that signifies old growth forests

• Due to increased human activity, old growth forests have been substantially destroyed over the last century. Of the old growth forests that still remain, 35% are in Latin America (Brazil), 28% in North America (mainly Canada) and 19% in northern Asia (Siberia)

Second growth forests

• Second growth forests (secondary forests) are forests that have re-grown after a major disturbance such as fire, insect infestation, logging, windthrow etc

• Second growth forests tend to have trees closer spaced than primary forests and have more undergrowth
• Second growth forests usually have less biodiversity than old growth forests, since the former have had lesser time to develop and reach stable equilibrium
• Secondary forests are common in areas under shifting agriculture, areas with forest fires, and forests that are recovering from harvesting and agriculture
• Secondary forests can several generations of trees (centuries) to resemble the original old growth forests. However, in some areas, secondary forests do not succeed due to soil nutrient loss and erosion (especially in tropical rainforests)

• Most of the forests of eastern North America and of Europe are secondary forests

Distribution of tropical rainforests in the world

Overview

• Rainforests are forests characterised by high rainfall, with minimum annual rainfall as high as 1700-2000 mm
• Rainforests are responsible for 28% of the world’s oxygen turnover. However, rainforests do not contribute much to the net oxygen additions to the atmosphere. Instead, they are vital in storing carbon in bio sequestration

• The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the area near the equator where winds originating in the northern and southern hemispheres meet, plays a significant role in creating the rainforests
• Despite the growth of vegetation, soil quality in a rainforest is poor. Most trees have roots near the surface due to lack of nutrients below the ground
• More than half the world’s species of plants and animals are found in rainforests

Tropical Rainforests

• Tropical rainforests are rainforests in the tropics, near the equator between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
• Tropical rainforests are found in South America (Brazil), Central America (Yucatan Peninsula), Sub-Saharan African (Congo), Northeast India, Southeast Asia (Indo-Malaya, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)
• Tropical rainforests are called ‘world’s largest pharmacy’, since over 25% of modern medicines originate from these plants

• Tropical rainforests are home to half of all the plant and animal species on earth

• Tropical rainforests are characterised by heavy rainfall, resulting in poor soil due to leaching of nutrients
• Temperatures range 15 C to 50 C. Rainfall ranges from 1250 mm to 6600 mm annually

Temperate Rainforests

• Temperate rainforests are rainforests that occur in the temperate zone and receive high rainfall
• Temperature range 4 to 12 C. Rainfall minimum is around 1400 mm annually
• Temperate rainforests are found in close proximity to oceans, and usually occur in coastal mountains. This is because temperate rainforests depend on the proximity to oceans to moderate seasons, creating milder winters and cooler summers. Coastal mountains increase rainfall on the ocean facing slopes

• Wildfires are uncommon in temperate forests due to the high moisture content in the forest

• Mosses are abundant in temperate rainforests

• Temperate rainforests sustain the highest levels of biomass of any terrestrial ecosystem

• Temperate rainforests are notable for trees of massive proportions, including coast redwood, coast douglas fir, sikta spruce etc

• Temperate rainforests are found in western North America, south-western South America, Norway, northern Spain, south-eastern Australia and New Zealand

Distribution of temperate rainforests in the world

• Rainforests are typically divided into four layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that environment
• Emergent layer

  • The highest layer, formed by a small number of very tall trees that grow above the general canopy

  • They reach heights of 45-55 m, occasionally even 70-80 m

  • Need to be able to withstand high temperatures and strong winds

  • Eagles, butterflies, bats and some monkeys inhabit this layer

• Canopy layer

  • The canopy layer consists of the largest number of tall trees, which provides a more or less continuous cover of foliage by adjacent treetops

  • Usually reach heights of around 30-45 m

  • The canopy layer is the densest area of biodiversity in a rainforest. It is estimated that the canopy layer is home to about 50% of all plant species and 25% of all insect species

• Understory

  • The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor
  • Leaves are much larger at this level

  • Only about 5% of sunlight incident on the rainforest reaches the understory layer

  • This layer is home to a number of birds, snakes, lizards, and predators like jaguar, boa constrictors etc

• Forest floor

  • The forest floor is the bottom most layer
  • The forest floor receives only about 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region

  • Due to low sunlight penetration, forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation. This makes it possible to walk through a rainforest

Effect on global climate

• Rainforests emit and absorb massive quantities of carbon dioxide. Undisturbed rainforests usually have no net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

• However, rainforests play a vital role in other climatic effects such as cloud formation and water vapour recycling

• Deforestation caused by human activities and drought can cause rainforests to release massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

TROPICAL DRY FORESTS

Overview

• Tropical dry forests are located in the tropical and subtropical latitudes
• These forests occur in areas that are warm and receive plentiful rainfall (several hundred centimetres) but experience long dry seasons which last several months. These seasonal droughts have great impact on the forest
• Deciduous trees dominate in these forests
• Tropical dry forests are less biologically diverse than rainforests
• However, they are home to a wide variety of wildlife including monkeys, deer, parrots, large cats etc. Mammalian biomass tends to be higher in dry forests than in rainforests.

Characteristics

• During the drought season a leafless season occurs. The shedding of leaves allows trees like teak and ebony to conserve water during these dry periods
• When the trees enter the dry leafless season, the canopy layer opens up allowing sunlight to reach the ground, thereby enabling growth of thick undergrowth
• However, certain areas of tropical dry forests can have evergreen trees. This happens especially when the forests are on moisture sites or have access to groundwater
• Three tropical dry forest regions have evergreen forests:
  • East Deccan dry evergreen forests (India)
  • Sri Lanka dry zone evergreen forests (Sri Lanka)
  • Southeastern Indochina dry evergreen forests (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam)
• The forests of central India are tropical dry forests

• Dry forests are extremely sensitive to forest fires, overgrazing and deforestation. Restoration of dry forests is possible, but challenging

Distribution

• Dry forests tend to exist north and south of the equatorial rainforest belt, and south and north of the subtropical deserts
• They usually occur in two bands: one between 10 and 20 N latitudes and the other between 10 and 20 S latitudes
• The most diverse dry forests of the world are found in southern Mexico and Bolivia

• The dry forests of central India and Indochina are notable for their diverse and large vertebrate fauna

• Other tropical dry forests are found in New Caledonia,     Madagascar, south eastern Africa and the Pacific coast of South America

TEMPERATE BROADLEAF AND MIXED FORESTS

Overview

• Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests are a temperate and humid biome (ecological system)

• These forests typically have four layers
  • Canopy layer: contains mature trees 100-200 ft high
  • Understory: shade tolerant layer of trees that grow to about 30-50 feet shorter than the canopy
  • Shrub layer: low growing woody plants
  • Herbaceous layer: this is the ground cover, most diverse layer
• Characteristic broadleaf trees these forests include oaks, birches, beeches and maples. Mixed trees are basically coniferous trees such as pines, firs and spruces

• Areas of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include northeast USA, northern India, eastern Australia, New Zealand, southwest China

Distribution

• Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests occur in areas with distinct warm and cool seasons, with moderate annual average temperature (5-15 C)

• They usually occur in moderately warm and rainy climates, sometimes with a distinct dry season
• Annual rainfall is typically over 600 mm and sometimes over 1500 mm

The Taiga, the world's largest terrestrial biome, is found throughout the high nothern latitudes

Overview

• Taiga is a biome characterised by coniferous forests

• The Taiga is the world’s largest terrestrial biome

• The taiga experiences relatively low precipitation (250mm – 750 mm), mostly in the form of fog, snow and summer rain. However, since evaporation is also low, there is enough moisture to enable dense vegetation growth
• Taiga soils tend to be young and nutrient-poor. The soil tends to be acidic and hence the forest floor only has lichens and mosses growing

Characteristics

• The taiga has harsh continental climate and large range of temperatures: -54 C to 27 C
• Except for the tundra and permanent ice caps, the taiga is the coldest biome on earth
• There are two main types of taiga:
  • Closed forest: closely spaced trees with mossy ground cover
  • Lichen woodland: trees that are farther apart and have lichen ground cover. More common in colder areas
• In the northern taiga areas, forest cover is not only sparse but also stunted
• The forests of taiga are mainly coniferous consisting of larch, spruce, fir and pine

• Taiga trees tend to have shallow roots to take advantage of thin soils.

• Since the sun is low on the horizon most of the time, it is difficult to photosynthesise. Pine and spruce do not lose their leaves in winter and can photosynthesise using their older leaves

• The adaptation of evergreen needles (on pines) limits water lost to transpiration and the dark green colour increases sunlight absorption

Distribution

• The taiga covers most of Canada, Alaska, Sweden, Finland, Norway, the Scottish Highlands and Russia. It is also found in parts of northern USA, northern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia and northern Japan

• Large areas of Siberia’s taiga have been destroyed in recent years
• In Canada, less than 8% is protected development and more than 50% has been allocated for logging

Taiga in Alaska, USA

• The taiga is home to a large number herbivorous mammals and smaller rodents
• Some of the animals, like bears, eat in summer and hibernate in winter. Others have evolved layers of fur to insulate them from the cold
• Due to the climate, carnivorous diets are inefficient for obtaining energy.

• A significant number of birds like Siberian thrush, white throated sparrow, black throated green warbler migrate to the taiga to take advantage of long summer days

LAST WEEK: OCEANS

~~~~~ NEXT WEEK: DESERTS

1. Solar probe lifts
   
   1. NASA has launched its Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) in Feb 2010
      
   2. The solar probe was launched from Cape Canaveral in Florida
      
   3. The SDO is designed to acquire detailed images of the Sun and study variations in its activity
      
   4. The main motivation behind the study is to understand the phenomena of solar flares, solar storms etc that severely affect satellites, communications and power systems on earth
   5. A key goal of the mission is to probe the inner workings of the solar dynamo, the deep network of plasma currents that generate the Sun’s magnetic field
   6. The SDO contains three important remote sensing instruments
      1. Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI): study the motions and magnetic fields at the Sun’s surface to determine what is happening inside the Sun
      2. Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA): is a suite of four telescopes that will image the Sun’s corona (the outer layer of Sun’s atmosphere)
      3. Extreme Ultraviolet Variability Experiment (EVE): measure the Sun’s energy output in extreme UV (E-UV) wavelengths. E-UV rays contain very high energy and their ionising effect can affect radio signals on Earth
2. Evolution of the tiger revealed
   
   1. Studies of evolution of the tiger have revealed that they began evolving about 3.2 million years ago, much earlier than previously thought
      
   2. The report in the journal Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,
      uses DNA studies to reveal that the tiger is more closely related to the snow leopard than to other big cat species
      
   3. There are five species of the big cat, which are categorised into the Panthera genus family
      1. Tiger
         
      2. Lion
         
      3. Leopard
         
      4. Jaguar
         
      5. Snow leopard
         
   4. Both tigers and snow leopards are among the most endangered big cats
      
   5. Fewer than 3500 tigers are said to survive in the world today
   6. One subspecies, called the Sumatran Tiger, is so rare that the first film of a wild individual was recorded only this year (in Indonesia)
      
3. Ukraine Presidential Elections 2010
   
   1. Viktor Yanukovych has been elected President of Ukraine in the recently concluded Presidential Elections in Jan-Feb 2010
      
   2. Yanukovych, garnered 48.95% of votes compared to 45.47% of opposition candidate Yulia Tymoshenko (who is the present Prime Minister)
   3. The Presidential Elections of 2010 were the fifth to be held in Ukraine since declaring independence from the Soviet Union in 1991
   4. Ukraine follows a semi-Presidential system of government, and the President is elected for a five year term.
   5. Ukraine has a unicameral Parliament, called the Verkhovna Rada
      
   6. Ukraine was the site of the Orange Revolution in 2004-2005, where massive demonstrations and protests against electoral fraud by then-President Yanukovych led to the election of Viktor Yushchenko as President. Yushchenko, who served as President 2005-2010, was eliminated in the first round of voting in the 2010 Presidential Elections
4. Moratorium on use of Bt Brinjal in India
   
   1. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has declared a moratorium (voluntary stoppage) on the use of Bt Brinjal in India
      
   2. The moratorium is to be in effect until scientific studies can conclusively prove that Bt Brinjal does not have adverse effects on human health, the environment and other brinjal crops
   3. The moratorium was declared in response to increasing concerns regarding the safety of use of the genetically modified (GM) food crop
   4. Bt Brinjal, developed by the American seed giant Monsanto, is a genetically modified (GM) brinjal crop that is capable of resisting several insect pests and reduces the need for pesticides
   5. It is developed by inserting a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (hence the name Bt) into the brinjal species
5. 2010 South Asian Games conclude
   
   1. The 2010 South Asian Games, the eleventh edition of the Games, took place between 29 Jan and 08 Feb 2010 in Dhaka
      
   2. This was the third time that Dhaka hosted the Games, thus becoming the first city to host the Games three times
   3. Eight nations from the region participated in the Games:
      
      1. Afghanistan
      2. Bangladesh
      3. Bhutan
      4. India
      5. Maldives
      6. Nepal
      7. Pakistan
      8. Sri Lanka
   4. The Games featured 23 sports and hosted about 2000 athletes in the various sports
   5. India topped the medal tally, with a total of 176 medals, including 90 gold medals. Pakistan came second with 19 golds and Bangladesh came third with 18 gold medals
      
   6. For the first time, Twenty20 cricket was included in the tournament. All nations sent under-21 cricket teams for particpation
   7. See here for a full list of the sports and winners
   8. The South Asian Games were first held in Kathmandu in 1983. It is held every two years